COMPOSITION 

IN THE ELEMENTARY 



SCHOOL 



TAYLOR 




Class _Lli \5.\A. 

Book_JIj.'5 

Copyright N"_ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



COMPOSITION IN THE 

ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS 



By JOSEPH S. TAYLOR, Pd. D. 

DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT 2)F SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY 

Author of "Art of Class Management and Discipline '' 




NEW YORK 

A. S. BARNES & COMPANY 



<^ 



A' 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies ■ Received 

NOV 23 i906 

A Cqpyrisfht Entry , 
cuss A XXc, No. 
COPY B. ' 



IX 



Copyright, 1906 
A. S. Barnes & Company 



Preface 

This book was written to supply a need. Many- 
excellent manuals on composition of the secondary 
school and college grade are accessible to American 
teachers, but similar books of a modem type for 
elementary schools are comparatively rare. The 
reason for this condition lies on the surface. The 
teachers of the elementary grades do not write 
many books, and yet they are the only people who 
possess the experience which an author must have 
who undertakes to show what elementary school 
children may know and how they should be taught. 
Hence we have any quantity of elementary school 
manuals and text-books written by professors in 
colleges and teachers in high schools that are worse 
than useless. They do a lot of mischief by setting 
up impossible standards and thus increasing the 
labor of the teacher and destroying the interest of 
the pupil. 



ii PREFACE 

The work suggested and described in the following 
pages can be done by the children for whom it is 
intended. The proof of this statement is in the fact 
that it has been done with eminent success during 
several years in hundreds of class-rooms supervised 
by the author. All the sample exercises shown in 
Chapter XII were selected from work produced in 
classes under ordinary conditions. 

Particular attention is called to the plan of work 
in Chapter X. A principal who directs his teachers 
to follow that plan will, without a doubt, achieve 
satisfactory results, provided he be willing to 
supervise the work. To facilitate such supervision 
the written exercises required are numbered con- 
secutively. It will thus be possible to refer, in 
progress books or otherwise, to any piece of work 
by 'merely giving its number. The numbers in 
Chapter XII correspond with similar numbers in the 
plan. 

Chapter XI is a very valuable compilation, and 
represents the labor of many people. The author 
claims no credit for any of it, and he desires to 
record in the most conspicuous manner his cordial 
thanks to District Superintendent Julia Richman 
for permission to reprint and thus make permanently 
accessible so valuable a collection of graded exercises. 

The chapter on punctuation, it is confidently 



PREFACE iii 

believed, will be found helpful because an effort has 
been made to include only such rules as come within 
the comprehension of the pupil at the time he is 
required to learn the same. The assignment by 
grades; the systematic review indicated, and the 
reference by numbers, are features to which atten- 
tion is invited. 

Finally, one of the appendices presents a suggested 
"cover" for compositions, which the author believes 
to be essential to successful supervision of composi- 
tion work. In case the covers are not printed, the 
teacher need select only such items of the method 
of production as apply in the case under considera- 
tion. 



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Contents 

Preface i 

I Composition as a Mode of Expression . 1 
II Psychology of Composition ... 9 

III The Aim of Composition ... 16 

IV Method in Composition — Principles . 18 
V Method in Composition — Devices . .31 

VI Forms of Composition .... 54 

VII Choosing a Subject 71 

VIII How to be Effective . . . .75 
IX The Correction of Compositions . . 81 
X Composition Plan for an Eight- Year 

Course . .88 

XI Graded Work in Dictation . . .129 
XII Illustrative Compositions . . . 165 
XIII Course in Punctuation for Elementary 

Schools 184 

Appendix A ...;... . 199 
Appendix B . . . . . . . . 199 

V 



Elementary Composition 
I. 

Composition as a Mode of Expression 

Modem psychology and physiology have made 
very plain the function of expression in the life of a 
child. The "reflex arc" is a type of all mental activ- 
ity. A headless frog will scratch the spot where he 
is tickled. This proves that a spinal ganglion has 
the power of converting an afferent impulse into an 
efferent impulse. The mind is but a higher ganglion. 
It, too, has the power of changing a sensory impulse 
into the motor form. The natural destination of 
every sensory impression; of every judgment, 
thought, or feeling, is expression through some form 
of muscular activity. While the child is very young 
this demand of nature for expression is actually met. 
The infant inhibits no thought, feeling, or desire. 

1 



2 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

He is a sort of reflex machine. What he feels he 
makes known; as soon as he can talk, he tells all he 
knows. If he is happy, he laughs; if he is sad, he 
cries. Only older folks learn to inhibit their thoughts 
and to conceal what goes on in the heart and brain. 
In other words, man is a reacting organism, and ex- 
pression is the reactive phase of mental life. It is 
the only evidence we have that there is mental life; 
and is the sole measure of a man's power and useful- 
ness in the world. 

Composition is one of many forms of expression.* 
The school of the past was even more deficient in 
expressive training than its successor of to-day. 
Most of the exercises were modes of impression. 
The pupil was always taking in and seldom giving 
out. He was listening or looking, while the teacher 
did the work. When he did give expression to 
thought it was the teacher's thought or the thought 
of the book rather than his own, that he uttered. 
He was not urged to be creative. But it is in crea- 
tion that, as Froebel said, man is like his Maker; and 
it is to creation that we must look for development 
and for the only product that makes education worth 
while. The principle here referred to may be illus- 
trated by the following examples: 

1. Lesson in Grammar. — A certain teacher asked 
his class to write on the subject of George Wash- 
ington six simple; six compound, and six complex 

*Col. Parker enumerates nine: Gesture, voice, music, 
speech, making, modeling, painting, drawing, writing. — 
Talks on Pedagogics. 



A MODE OF EXPRESSION 3 

sentences. All the pupils Avrote first the six 
simple, then the six compound, then the six 
complex; except one boy, who alternated them; 
taking one simple, one compound, and one com- 
plex in turn, and repeating the series until he had 
six of each. This gave the variety which is so 
essential an element of the art of expression. At 
the same time he managed to have all his eighteen 
sentences coordinated into a well-connected narra- 
tive on George Washington. He therefore got more 
discipline out of the exercise than his fellow pupils 
and produced a result that had value beyond mere 
grammatical accuracy. 

2. Picking Up Blocks. — Mother tells James to 
pick up his blocks and put them away for the 
day. The boy replies: ''Mother, I am going to 
build a house, so I won't have to pick them up."* 
The result is an elaborate church with steeples, 
porches, turrets, arches, windows; every block 
being utilized in the structure. To pile up blocks 
into a box in a regular way day by day is 
drudgery. To build an elaborate church requires 
the exertion of the creative faculty and results in an 
agreeable product. Both the exertion and the pro- 
duct produce satisfaction because they are what 
Dewey calls self-expression, whereas the mere putting 
away of blocks is an expression of another's desire. 

3. Lesson in Drawing. — Object, to learn to draw 
horizontal and vertical lines. Lesson : First a 



*This is an actual occurrence. 



4 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

large number of one kind; then a large col- 
lection of the other kind. Result: Children soon 
tire and lose interest. The more skilful teacher 
induces the pupil to combine the same lines into 
a simple design or shows him how to employ- 
such lines in the expression of thought by means 
of pictures. The old drawing books were wrong 
when they insisted on beginning with straight line 
exercises. Such a method is simply "putting away 
blocks." It does not rise to the dignity of teaching 
because it supplies no motive to learn. It is neither 
creation nor self-expression, and has no educational 
value. 

The school of the present puts the emphasis on the 
expressive side of mental activity. Such subjects 
as music, manual work, drawing, painting, composi- 
tion, are to-day held by educators in the highest 
esteem. Some people who do not understand the 
theory of expression, or who judge educational 
institutions by what they remember of their own 
school days, are in the habit of referring to these 
modern modes of expression as "fads and frills." 
The majority of taxpayers, however, realize, with- 
out understanding the underlying philosophy, that 
these things are not fads. The children, also, appre- 
ciate the value of expressive work and thus become 
missionaries of the new educational gospel. 

When the child recognizes composition as a mode 
of self-expression he looks upon it no longer as a mere 
task, but puts his heart into it as in the case of play. 
Two girls were observed passing a rainy afternoon 



A MODE OF EXPRESSION 5 

by writing original stories for amusement. One of 
these productions occupied six closely-written pages 
of foolscap and was a very creditable fairy tail en- 
titled " The Story of King Chester." It is reproduced 
here almost exactly as it was dashed off at high speed 
merely for fun. There is a certain ease and grace of 
style which would be lacking if the child had been 
hampered by a lot of rules and prescriptions. And 
this fluency, this freedom of idiomatic phrase, is its 
principal merit. It is easy enough to criticize out of 
it the few trifling errors; but it is quite impossible 
to criticize any merit into a composition technically 
faultless but devoid of thought and feeling and 
imagination. 

The Story of King Chester. 
(By K. R. T. Age 13.) 

Once upon a time there lived in Europe a wicked king 
whose name was King Chester. He was cruel and was the 
cause of many deaths. 

As the story now stands, he is trying a poor maiden who 
lived in a small town nearby, for something of which she was 
absolutely innocent. The king knew this, but was deter- 
mined to make her guilty. 

The trouble arose over a small matter about the king's 
son. One of his sons was very handsome and he fell in love 
with this maiden. When the king found it out he was very 
angry and resolved to get even with the prince. So he 
thought of a plan and was going to try to execute it if he 
could. 

Now, there lived about three thousand miles away, in a 
place which we call Arabia, the king's brother, who was 
equally wicked. So the king planned to send his son to 
see the uncle in Arabia; and while the prince was away he 



6 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

was going to accuse the maiden of stealing and then would 
try her and exile her to some foreign country and would not 
let her come back till she was sent for. 

So the prince set out and before long had reached his 
uncle's. 

Meantime what was happening to the poor maiden? As 
I have said before, she was being tried for false reasons. 

The judges proclaimed that she was not guilty and this 
made the king more angry than ever, so he was going to 
try something which he was sure would work. He was 
going to send the girl outside of the room and make her 
guess when three hours had passed without any clock or 
anything else. So now she was standing outside of the 
room and was weeping bitterly when she heard a tapping 
sound; and whom should she see but a very little man, no 
bigger than your thumb. He said to the maiden, "Why 
do you weep, fair one?" "Oh, sir," she said, "the king 
is punishing me for something with which I had nothing to 
do. I have to guess when three hours are up and if I don't 
I shall be exiled to a foreign country." Then the little man 
answered and said, "Well, well, that is rather hard on a poor 
girl. I will see what I can do for you." He handed her a 
small piece of paper with these words written on it: 

"Oh pray, fair watch. 

Appear Ramen, Ramen, Ramen ! " 

Then he said, ' ' Every time you are put out here you repeat 
the lines and a watch will appear and tell when three hours 
are up." Before she had time to thank him he had disap- 
peared. So she thought she would try and see if it were 
true what the paper said. She repeated the words; and 
just as the fairy had said, a watch hung on a gold chain 
appeared about her neck. The time was nearly up and 
she had but ten minutes, so she went about the hall looking 
at everything that was of any interest. When her time 
was up she went into the room on the exact minute. At 
this the king again grew angry, for he got angry on very 
slight provocation, and had a fearful temper. So he sent 



A MODE OF EXPRESSION 7 

her out again and this time she was to come in two hours. 
But the same thing happened every time and the king grew 
more angry every time, till at last he could stand it no 
longer, and tried to think of something else to do, so he 
could exile her. But as it was drawing near the tinie for 
the prince to return home, he settled the question and 
exiled her to a small island off the coast of Arabia, so that 
when the prince came from his uncle's, not he, but the uncle 
should marry this girl. 

What had our prince been doing in the meantime? His 
father had sent word to his brother to have balls and to 
invite all the pretty maidens to tempt the prince, so he 
might fall in love with one of them. But the prince cared 
for none of them. He thought only of his own fair maiden. 
As I said before, it was time for the prince to return home, 
so his sweetheart was sent away. The day after she kft. 
Prince Meredith (for that was the prince's name) returned 
home, and the king told him that his former sweetheart 
had gone to a far country because she now hated him so that 
she would not stay near him. The prince did not believe 
what the king said, for he knew that the king often got 
things twisted accidentally on purpose. The prince soon 
grew restless and longed to see his dear maiden again. At 
last he started out to look for her. He first thought he 
would go to his uncle's in Arabia, because he had left his 
jewelled sword there, and he treasured it highly. He arrived 
at his uncle's about noon one day a month after he had left 
home. He heard someone weeping inside and the voice 
sounded like his loved one's voice. She was crying out, 
"No, I will not be your wife, for I love Prince Meredith." 
Prince Meredith hurried to the spot whence the voice came, 
and whom should he see but his own dear sweetheart standing 
before his uncle. At the sight of Prince Meredith the maiden 
went off into a swoon. The uncle was so frightened that he 
ran out of the room. When the girl recovered, the prince 
was bending over her. He said, "I have come to take you 
home." Then she told him how she had been held for 



8 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

trial and sent away. The prince said, "Now, dear, during 
all the long years I have known you, you never told me your 
name." Then the maiden said, "Dear prince, you shall 
know my name; it is Charlotte Chester." For a moment 
the prince stood aghast, then he answered: "At last I have 
found you, my darling cousin Charlotte. Your father was 
my father's cousin, and when your father died, my father 
offered a great reward to anyone who would find a trace of 
you. It was said some gipsy had carried you off, for you 
were then a small baby." The girl, as she was now sure the 
prince had found out who she was, said, "The woman who 
has been taking care of me claimed she was my mother. 
But we do not look a bit alike." 

The prince then took his sweetheart home, and when the 
king heard he had been persecuting his own relative, he fell 
on his knees and asked pardon from her and the prince. 

The couple were then married and lived in a beautiful 
palace near the king, for he now idolized the princess and 
could not bear her out of his sight. 



II. 

The Psychology of Composition. 

1. The Evolution of Expression. — Psychologists 
tell us that gesture is the first means selected by 
the child to express his thoughts. The beginnings 
of speech accompany the gesture, the latter being the 
principal element of language. Later, when the 
intellectual evolution is ended gestures are relegated 
to the second place, and present themselves as an 
auxiliary of speech.* Before the child can em- 
ploy gesture as a sign to make known his thoughts 
and feelings, he must learn the meaning of those 
signs; hence even the use of gestures as a language 
implies considerable intellectual development. It 
is probable that at about the age of one year the 
child begins to employ gesture language. 

2. Oral and Written Expression. — The vocal 



* Compayre, Later Infancy of Childhood, p. 84. Appleton, 
X902. 





10 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

organs of the infant are used instinctively from the 
day of birth to express his wants. Later, sponta- 
neous sounds of many kinds are emitted as a prepara- 
tion for the ordeal of learning to speak. After a few- 
months of comparative silence, nature impels the 
infant to indulge in incessant prattle. In this way 
a stock of motor images is accumulated which forms 
the basis for the voluntary use of the vocal appara- 
tus. In learning to speak "he is guided, above all, 
by his auditory impressions and by imitation. What 
his ear has heard, his mouth will finish by repeating, 
but this on one condition, that, thanks to the opera- 
tions that are going on in his brain, what was at first 
only the excitation of the acoustic nerves, becomes 
the moving impulse of the nerves and of the vocal 
muscles. The action of the cerebral organs is neces- 
sary, then, to render possible the communication 
by which the external impressions of hearing may 
be transformed into mental images, which, in their 
turn, will give place to appropriate motions in the 
organ of speech."* 

Too much stress cannot be laid upon the power of 
imitation in the evolution of speech. The physio- 
logical conditions must of course be present. The 
speech centers of the brain must be provided with 
cells and fibers sufficiently developed to make possi- 
ble the voluntary transformation of a sensory 
impulse into a motor impulse and definitely co-ordi- 
nated muscular movements. The instinct of Imita- 
tion sets the machinery of vocal expression in motion, 

* Compayre, Later Infancy of the Child, p, 66, 



ITS PSYCHOLOGY 11 

*'Do not birds in a cage begin to chirp, to sing, as 
soon as they hear us speak near them, as though they 
would like to enter into a conversation with us?"* 
Even so the child, long before he can talk, has a pre- 
monition of dialogue. By social instinct he feels a 
secret need of conversing. Speech calls forth speech. 
Hence the deaf child remains dumb because he cannot 
hear the speech of others. 

In a way similar to the acquisition of spoken 
language the child learns the art of expressing his 
thoughts in writing. The spoken word is a combina- 
tion of sounds, generally arbitrary, used as a symbol 
to represent an idea. To learn a word is to fix the 
association between any object or idea and the sound 
which represents it so firmly in the mind that the 
idea suggests the symbol and the symbol the idea. 
The written word is likewise a symbol, but differing 
from the spoken word in that it appeals to the eye 
rather than to the ear. The muscular machinery 
for representing it is located in the hand and arm 
instead of the vocal organs. But the mode of con- 
verting a sensory impression into the motor form is 
precisely the same as that of spoken language. The 
use of the written or printed symbol is acquired 
chiefly by imitation. Reading and writing are 
usually taught simultaneously because they are parts 
of the same process, both having for their object 
the association of symbols with ideas and feelings. 

3. Composition More than Mere Expression. — Com- 
position, in the technical sense, is more than the mere 

* Compayre, Later Infancy of the Child, p. 78 



12 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

conversion of a sensory impulse into the motor 
form. It is something more than reproduction, for 
it involves a creative element. The materials of 
composition bear the same relation to the finished 
product that piles of brick and lumber bear to a 
house. The structure is made of the materials 
gathered from many sources, but the art consists in 
the arrangement of these materials. "Every house," 
says Emerson, ''is a quotation from the forest;*' but 
it is not plagiarism, because the architect has added 
his brain to the trees and produced something that 
has more value than the mere raw material. Shakes- 
peare's plays are drawn from the tales of other men; 
but no one accuses Shakespeare of plagiarism, be- 
cause the material he used v/as infinitely enriched by 
passing through his imagination. Lowell says, "A 
thing is his at last who says it best." Now, this art 
of ''saying it" is composition, whether the expression 
take the form of a house, a statue, a canvas, an oral 
recitation, a speech, an essay, or a book. 

4. Composition as a Mental Process, — Considered 
as a mental process, composition is related to the 
motor side of thought It is a synthetic process, 
inasmuch as it consists in finding and putting to- 
gether materials of thought in consciousness and 
expressing the same by means of language. In 
terms of Herbartianism, it is a form of apperception, 
since it gives to the elements of thought a new mean- 
ing, a new setting, and a new value. In the lan- 
guage of English psychology, composition is a form 
of association, one thought leading naturally to 



ITS PSYCHOLOGY 13 

another through some one of the various modes of 
suggestion. All composition involves thinking. It 
employs creative imagination and calls for the con- 
stant exercise of taste. 

Dr. Harris, in an address, defined the elementary 
school as an institution for converting the ear-minded 
into the eye-minded. Incidentally he affirmed that 
it is quite impossible to impart scientific knowledge 
to ear-minded people. The reason for this is that 
science must use as its tools, in producing and pre- 
serving scientific results, technical terms, and these 
must be recorded and carefully defined. The in- 
accuracy and perishableness of oral speech render 
the diffusion of scientific knowledge by word of 
mouth impossible. 

The power to read and write with fluency is there- 
fore one of the essential aims of the common schools, 
Parker believes that* "the mechanical difficulties 
of writing are very much less than those of speech." 
One reason why written language seems harder is 
that the pupil comes to school "with six years' prac- 
tice in speech. "t Another reason is that "the 
motive in speech is keener, as the desire to make 
some one understand immediately excites the wiU; 
while in writing this incentive is usually lacking." 

* Talks on Pedagogics, p. 314. 

•{•"Aunt J. has given me a dictionary to look up all the 
hard words in it. It takes a good deal of time, and I am 
g'lad people can talk without stopping to spell. It is much 
easier to talk than write and much more fun." Rebecca, in 
Kate Douglas Wiggin's "Rebecca of Sunr.ybrook Farm, ' 
p. 43. (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903.) 



14 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

5. The Thinking of Children. — If v/e can deter- 
mine the mode and limitations of a child's think- 
ing, we shall throw much light on the problem of 
elementary composition. Several studies of chil- 
dren's reasonings have been published. One of 
these, by H. W. Brown,* consists of a collection of 
375 incidents illustrating the misconceptions, in- 
ferences; and occasional display of mother-witj 
found in children between the ages of three and ten. 
No very definite conclusions are drawn by Mr. 
Brown, but he calls attention to the following points: 

(a) We have not a sufficiently profound sense of 
the difficulty under which the little human being 
labors in trying to deal with the overwhelming 
multitude of objects and events that confront him. 

(6) His ideas of time and space, the fundamental 
forms of thought, are inadequate. The lack of 
perspective that appears in his drawings exists like- 
wise in his mental grasp of the duration; magni- 
tude, and importance of phenomena. 

Earl Barnes' well-known study of children's draw- 
ingst showed him: 

(a) That the child thinks in small units; his intel- 
lectual processes are fragmentary and broken. 

(6) That this fragmentary thinking gives great 
opportunity for the play of association of ideas. His 
thoughts are like his acts. His attention is not long 

*Ped. Seminary, Vol. 2, p. 358. "Some Records of the 
Thoughts and Reasonings of Children." 

f "A Study on Children's Drawings," Fed. Sem., Vol. 2, 
po 465, 



ITS PSYCHOLOGY ■ 15 

fixed upon one object. He is the victim of invol- 
untary attention. Ideas control him, instead of 
being controlled by him. Hence, whatever comes 
into his head goes into the composition, whether 
there be logic or no logic. 



IIL 

The Aim of Composition. 

If the psychology of composition has been properly 
explained, it throws much light upon the two prob- 
lems that confront us, the problems, namely, of aim 
and method. If composition is the conversion of 
sensory impulses into motor impulses, and in addition 
to this involves original production, as in the selec- 
tion, arrangement, and organization of materials 
from the mental store; if it calls for the use of creative 
imagination and the exercise of taste; if it is a form 
of judgment, of apperception, and of thinking — then 
it must have very great value as a, means of mental 
discipline We are, therefore, justified, I think, in 
saying that *'the general aim of elementary compo- 
sition teaching is, not the acquisition of a science; 
but the training of the mind through the acquisition 
and expression of ideas." '^ 

* The Teaching of English, p. 123 Carpenter, Baker & 
Scott, Longmans, 1903 

16 



AIM OF COMPOSITION 17 

There is a body of facts and principles governing 
the expression of ideas in a correct and forcible man- 
ner which must be acquired by the pupil. It is 
quite impossible to ignore punctuation, grammar; 
spelling, figures of speech, and the like, in teaching 
composition; hence, while the primary aim of a lesson 
is to train the mind through the acquisition and 
expression of ideas, "the second aim must be to teach 
those facts and principles of language which are the 
necessary media of successful expression."* 

* The Teaching of English, p. 124 



IV. 

Method in Composition — Principles 

A few of the great principles of education which 
underlie all sound teaching may well be recalled 
in this connection. 

1. Correlation. — One of these is the principle of 
correlation. Composition writing deals with matter 
and with form; there must be something to say, and 
the manner of saying it must conform to good usage. 
The studies that supply thought-stuff should there- 
fore be correlated with those that deal with forms. 
That is, in the composition hour we may call upon 
the pupil to express the knowledge he has gathered 
in history, geography, nature, or literature, in ac- 
cordance with the forms which we show him to be 
correct and effective. 

Nor need we wait for the composition hour to effect 
the correlation here spoken of. In every oral reci" 
tation, from the lowest grade to the highest,; the 

18 



PRINCIPLES 19 

pupil should be systematically trained and encour- 
aged to express himself in complete sentences and 
coherent discourse without interruption from the 
teacher. Some of the most charming exercises in 
oral composition the writer has witnessed in the 
first year classes where children reproduce stories told 
by the teacher. The children step to the front of the 
room and tell their story from beginning to end 
in language audible and fluent. Facts learned in 
nature study or stories read from books are recited 
in the same way (except that it is not necessary 
always to require the child to step to the front). 

For purposes of language teaching stories may be 
divided into two classes, — those that are to be re- 
peated by children and those that are not to be 
repeated. To those that children are to reproduce 
belong historical stories of all kinds, including folk- 
lore, biography; myth, and fable. All these should 
contain some well-marked incident, and the usual 
elements of suspense and surprise. 

Some stories are to be used merely for culture,- — 
to stimulate social and ethical impulses of children; 
to refine the taste, and to develop a feeling for style. 
These stories are of classic perfection and are not to 
be reproduced by the child. 

Very few teachers appreciate fully the great educa- 
tional value of oral composition. In the time of the 
Sophists and in the palmy days of Rome, the orator 
possessed the gift most prized by the man who had 
intellectual or political ambitions. Quintilian's great 
work on education was written to show how the ora- 



20 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

tor should be educated, because the finished orator 
was the type of the highest culture. The. Sophist 
prided himself on being able to discuss at a moment's 
notice any subject assigned to him. Extemporaneous 
discussion was the mode of teaching adopted not only 
by the Sophists, but by Socrates, their arch enemy, as 
well. The skill exhibited by the characters who 
carry on the philosophical conversation in the dia- 
logues of Plato is the marvel of the modem reader. 
We no longer cultivate this art, for the printing 
press, the typewriter, and other modern modes of 
communication have put the orator out of business. 

But the educational value of oral speech is as great 
now as it ever was; and the writer has become con- 
vinced that a reform in this matter is sadly needed 
in all our schools. 

The gift of confident, ready, and forceful speech is 
still recognized as a badge of culture and power. In 
certain forms of business it is an absolute essential. 
In all social relations it is of the greatest value. The 
man or woman who would be useful in the modern 
church or Sunday school or in any of the various 
social organizations should know how to think on his 
feet and to express his thoughts in coherent lan- 
guage. It is important, however, to put the empha- 
sis on the thinking part of the process. A glib 
tongue unsupported by matter worth saying makes 
the owner tiresome. Verbosity is a form of speech 
wherein the vocabulary outruns the ideas. Talking 
for the mere sake of entertaining may be a fatal gift,; 
even though it please for the moment. 



PRINCIPLES 21 

Many devices for stimulating interest in oral 
composition are described in another chapter. Be- 
low is given a single example not found elsewhere : 
Oral Composition. 

A boy is called on to tell how to play any game without 
mentioning its name. Any boy who can give the name of 
the game that has been described, may, in his turn, tell how 
to play some other game, and so on. 

John. — "In my game the boys stand in three lines. The 
first three boys have bean bags. At the signal, they run 
out and drop the bags in three circles marked on the ground; 
then they run back and tag the three next boys, who run 
out, and picking up the bags, give them to the next three 
boys, and so on till the first boys are back in their places." 

Fred. — "It is the bean bag race." 

Fred. — "In this game the boys form a ring, with one boy 
in the middle, who is to be the mouse, and one outside of 
the ring, who is to be the cat. The cat tries to break through 
the ring to catch the mouse. The boys try to keep him out. 
If he breaks through, the boys on the other side open the 
ring to let the mouse escape. When the mouse is caught 
he becomes the cat and another boy is selected to be the 
mouse." 

James. — "That game is called 'Cat and Mouse.'" 

2. Isolation. — The second principle of composi- 
tion which it is necessary to observe is isolation. 
This is the opposite of correlation, and demands the 
separation and arrangement of the elements of 
composition into easy and orderly stages proceeding 
from the simple to the complex. We cannot teach 
everything in one and the same lesson. In every 
grade it is necessary to make the problem definite. 

The educational value of composition depends 
upon the success with which it is taught. If. too 



22 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

much is attempted and the pupil fails there is very- 
little value in it. If too much help is offered and the 
pupil becomes a mere echo of the teacher, no profit 
can come from the exercise. ''To many it seems," 
says Herbart,* "that the exercises they assign 
should be very easy rather than short; and to make 
them easy, outlines, terms of expression, everything, 
is indicated as definitely as possible. This is a 
delusion. If composition has any purpose, it con- 
sists in making the pupil try to see what he can do 
without the teacher. Now if the pupil actually gets 
started on the exercise, the teacher ought not to step 
in his way with all sorts of prescriptions. If the 
pupil fails to make headway, the attempt was pre- 
mature. We must either wait or else shorten the 
task, no matter if it should shrink to no more than 
three lines. Three lines of the pupil's own work are 
better than three pages written by direction." 

In days gone by the teachers sometimes required 
children to write compositions on impossible themes. 
Friday afternoon was composition day in the district 
school of which the writer was a pupil. A week was 
usually allowed to prepare the essay. No instruction 
was given on the art of composing, but the finished 
product had to be read before the whole school. The 
subject assigned was frequently an abstract ethical 
theme like, ''Knowledge is Power." If the pupil 
tried to be original he was sure to be silly, and then 
the other children laughed at him. If he copied his 

* Outlines of Educational Doctrine, p. 123. (Macmillan, 
1901.) 



PRINCIPLES 23 

essay out of a book, nobody understood it, and the 
performance was rather stupid. 

In modern days, the subjects assigned are more 
reasonable. Children usually write on things with 
which they are familiar. But the method of teach- 
ing children to compose is often as faulty as it was in 
former days. The principal defect is that the prob- 
lem is not divided into easy steps, to be mastered one 
at a time. Classes of children, of the average age of 
ten, have been known to be required to write essays 
containing several hundred words each. They were 
expected to spell, punctuate, and capitalize correctly; 
to construct the paragraphs, to arrange the facts in 
logical order, and to express the whole in correct and 
effective English. Of course children of that age can 
do nothing of the kind. Nor should they be per- 
mitted, much less encouraged, to do so many difficult 
things at once. 

In looking over a package of compositions; one 
often finds the greatest diversity of treatment. The 
only common element is the title. Some children 
have one paragraph, others a dozen. Some have 
three pages, others three lines. Such work suggests 
a faulty method of teaching. The problem was not 
sufficiently definite. If the teacher had decided 
before the writing, how many sub-divisions should 
be treated, the number of paragraphs would have 
been automatically determined and would have been 
the same in all. 

In the primary grades a convenient device for 
securing uniformity of treatment is the use of ques- 



24 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

tions which are written on the board. The danger 
in this case, as well as in all attempts to limit the 
form of treatment, is that the pupil's originality will 
be destroyed and the work will reflect more of the 
teacher than of the pupil. Great skill is required 
in the construction of such questions to prevent 
mechanical results. 

Another way of securing individual solutions of a 
common problem in composition is to limit the num- 
ber of paragraphs and sentences that shall be written. 
The following limits have been suggested : 

3A — Two or three sentences, aggregating not over 
twenty-five words. 

3B— Four sentences in one paragraph, aggregating 
thirty-five words. 

4A— Two paragraphs, aggregating fifty words. 

4B— Three paragraphs, aggregating sixty words. 

5A— 5B — Not more than one hundred words. 

Writing from topical outlines is a successful device 
for combining uniformity of aim and form with 
originality in composition. 

The following compositions were written by third 
grade pupils in Public School 144 (Manhattan); 
New York, on these topics : 1. What I am; 2. 
How I look; 3. Where I live; 4. What I can do. 

The Story of a Dog. 

I am a big dog, my name is Nearrow. My coat is a brown 
one. It is nice and curly. I have sharp bright eyes. I 
live in the house with my master. 

I can see a great distance. When my master comes home, 
I am so happy that I bark and dance for joy. 

December 8, 1902. Katie Kaplan. 



PRINCIPLES 25 

The Story of a Cow. 

I am a big cow. My coat is gray and white. I live in 
the stable. 

I can say moo. I can give milk, and from my milk 
people make butter- and cheese. . 

December 8, 1902. Rebecca Greenberg. 

The Story of a Beaver. 

I am a little brown beaver. I have very bright eyes, a 
flat tail covered with scales, and a furry body. I live near 
the water. 

I can do so many things. I can build my house, build a 
bridge, and I can tell the other beavers when danger is near, 
without speaking. 

December 8 1902. Esther Levy. 

The Story of a Cow. 

I am a brown cow, spotted with white. I live in the barn 
with my sisters and brothers. 

I take hay from the milk maid's hand and I can say 
moo, moo. The milk maid milks me every day. 

December 8, 1902. Fannie Weisman. 

In order that any of the preceding suggestions 
may be successfully applied it is necessary to give 
children an abundance of material. Sometimes the 
information supplied is so meager and is offered in 
such a concise and formal way that the pupil has no 
recourse but to repeat the words of the teacher. 

Children in all grades need systematic training in 
arranging their thoughts in proper sequence. Their 
manner of thinking is scrappy. Their attention is 
not long fixed upon one subject. Their interest soon 
flags, and the demand for novelty is never satisfied. 
Their outward acts are but a reflection of their 
thoughts. They flit from toy to toy, from game to 



26 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

game, from one form of activity to another, regard- 
less of order or consistency. In describing or nar- 
rating what they have seen or heard they are equally 
inconsistent. They tell bits of experience as these 
happen to appear on the stage of consciousness, but 
have little power to seize the essentials and to put 
them in proper order so as to produce the effect of 
unity and completeness. 

A very excellent plan for systematic training in 
consecutive thinking is presented in Scott's '' Organic 
Education " ;* and to this book the reader is referred 
for specific directions. 

3. Interest. — In school nothing can be successfully 
taught which fails to interest the child. It is con- 
tended by some that, as children are active rather 
than reflective, they are not naturally interested in 
composition. They certainly exhibit a spontaneous 
interest in oral composition; for out of school they 
are incessantly talking. They like to tell what they 
have heard and what they have read; they narrate 
their doings; they even invent stories and indulge in 
imaginary conversations with dolls and pets. 

All these activities are forms of composition. If 
children show any repugnance to written composi- 
tion, it must not be assumed that they dislike com- 
position as such. They are probably annoyed by 
the mechanical difficulties of writing their thoughts. 

Until these difficulties of penmanship are overcome 
the compositions of children should be almost en- 
tirely oral. Probably the first two years might 

* D. C, Heath & Co., 1899, Chap. IV (pp. 33, 34, 37, 41). 



PRINCIPLES 27 

profitably be limited to oral work. Many educators 
believe that we have too much writing in the lower 
grades.* Perhaps the large classes of the public 
schools are responsible for this condition, since it 
would be impossible to have much oral composition 
in classes with registers of sixty or seventy pupils. 
With classes of thirty or forty on register oral com- 
position is within the range of possibility, provided 
the teacher has the energy and skill to conduct the 
exercise in a sprightly fashion. 

When the difficulty of writing has been sufficiently 
overcome, the interest in oral composition may be 
transferred to the written form. The interest 
referred to here is to be centered in the process of 
composition itself, not merely in the subject matter 
treated. Just as a game appeals to a child because 
it affords an opportunity of realizing an end which 

* The Conversation Man. 
Oh, de man dat keeps a-talkin' — dat's de man I wants to be. 
He simply goes aroun' de place to see what he kin see; 
He alus takes life easy, an' he wears his Sunday clo'es, 
An' keeps us in astonishment by showin' what he knows. 
You kin work an' save yoh money; you kin plot and you kin 

plan, 
But de man dat takes his comfort is de conversation man. 

I wouldn't be no hero, 'cause it's jes' as like as not 
Befo' I got de medals fastened to me I'd be shot. 
.'I doesn't want to speculate an' see de money fly, 
I's only jes' ambitious to stan' 'roun' an' speechify. 
When you tries to earn yoh livin' you mus' work de bes' 

you can. 
But de man d-at eats spring chicken is de conversation man. 

— Washington Star. 



28 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

in his estimation has value, so the art of writing one's 
thoughts is to be interesting as an end in itself. 
Conversation is pleasurable because it satisfies the 
instinctive craving for social sympathy and co- 
operation. Written discourse, when properly taught 
may be similarly interesting as a form of social inter- 
course. 

4. Cooperation. — This principle, which Herbart 
treats as a kind of interest, is so important that it 
deserves special consideration. Cooperation is one 
of the cardinal virtues of class instruction in any 
subject. With Socratic ingenuity, the teacher is to 
be a leader in the search for knowledge rather than 
a mere task-master. He is to share the pupil's 
experiences, to take with the child the steps by which 
truth is discovered. 

A composition lesson by applying this principle; 
may have all the charms of a game, in which each 
child takes a definite part, measures his wits against 
others, and contributes something toward the 
general good. A few suggestions are offered as to 
how cooperation may be made effective. 

(1) After the subject has been decided on and 
the manner of treatment defined, the teacher writes 
a composition with the children, putting it mto 
the pack with theirs, to be read, perhaps, at the 
proper time. 

(2) Occasionally he may write his composition 
on the board, it being understood that no one is 
allowed to copy his sentences. 

(3) In oral composition the teacher takes his 



PRINCIPLES 29 

turn with the class, occupying no more time than 
he allows to children. 

(4) A teacher of composition in a departmental 
system contributes the following concrete illustra- 
tion of cooperative work: 

"For the purpose of developing and enlarging the vocab- 
ulary by changing a general idea into a specific picture, 
thus increasing the power of imagination, I have found 
cooperative construction an excellent device. 

"If a picnic be the subject of the composition, I follow 
some such plan as this: 'What kind of day did you have 
for your picnic?' and the answers come thick and fast: 
'Clear,' 'warm,' 'b ight,' 'good,' 'cool,' 'breezy,' etc. The 
class decide which word will convey the most definite and 
most agreeable impression. 'What time did you start?' 
That question brings forth a variety of answers, which, 
finally, by selection and elimination, combine into a good 
sentence descriptive of the time and weather. 

'By a similar line of questions I get very good pictures 
of the road traveled, and the place of the picnic, a clear 
account of any adventure or accident, and a certain indi- 
viduality in the several accounts, for each girl may use the 
word that she, herself, prefers. 

"This plan has worked well in description and narration." 

Mary Chalmers. 

P. S. 119, Manhattan, N. Y., 7th year. 

(5) Many more forms of cooperative work are 
suggested below under the head of "Devices." 

A word of caution is needed at this point. Social 
cooperation is a spontaneous impulse of the child; 
but in play it is always combined with individuality. 
In a game the child plays his own part; he never 
loses his identity in a mass of common effort. 
Hence, concert recitation is not real cooperation. 



30 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

It is, in fact, the opposite, the vice of teaching. In 
it the pupil may follow the words of the class with- 
out having his mind on what he is doing. In real 
cooperation, he profits by all the rest, but his pro- 
duct is nevertheless in a real sense his own. 



V. 
Method in Composition — Devices 

In order to profit by the experience of others; 
the' writer addressed a letter, during the preparation 
of this book, to a number of successful teachers 
and principals, asking them to describe devices 
which they had found useful in making composition 
interesting to children. 

If interest is self-expression; as Dewey* says; 
then the lesson in composition must offer an oppor- 
tunity to the child for self-realization; that is, it 
must make it possible to externalize an ideal or 
emotional phase of the soul, — to make such sub- 
jective state an object of external cognition. This 
is precisely what the so-called "modes of expression" 
dof . Michael Angelo, looking at a block of marble,; 

*Dewey: Interest as Related to Will. University of Chi-> 
cago Press. 

f Parker: Talks on Pedagogics. A. S. Barnes. & Co. 
31 



32 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

sees an angel imprisoned there. The angel, how- 
ever, is not in the marble, as yet, but in himself; 
and sculpture is the art that makes it possible to 
transform the intangible angel in the artist's soul 
into a beautiful form with three dimensions. 

The following devices, classified by grades, em- 
body not merely the principle of interest, but the 
other principles enumerated as well. Where the 
language of another is used, quotation marks are 
employed. It is hoped that these suggestions may 
be of some use to teachers. Probably no one will 
employ them all; but they are sufficiently compre- 
hensive to offer something to each grade. 

First Year — Oral Composition 

(1) Positive and Definite Movements of the 
Body Help Clear Thinking. — "If the teacher 
could be impressed with the fact that clear, well- 
defined movements of the body, aid in clear thinking; 
the children would be required to move in a more 
positive manner, and not in the undecided way 
which makes one feel that the mind is not on the 
work, and therefore cannot be interested in it." 
Miss R., P. S. 75, Manhattan. 

Physical Training, in order to possess educational 
value, must be conducted with precision and positive- 
ness. A supervisor is many times compelled to 
criticise slovenly work of this kind. Many teachers 
permit children to dawdle, and turn; and twist, and 
go through a series of exercises without paying the 
slightest ajttention to the work. When an order or 



DEVICES 33 

a direction is given during physical culture or any- 
other exercise it should be obeyed by every child. 
The principle is applicable to walking, marching, and 
other movements involved in school work. 

(2) Require Clear Statements in Answer to 
Questions. — "There are so many things in the 
make-up of a composition, — so many things that 
the child must be able to do, — that even with the 
interest, there is often failure. To be successful; 
he must have learned, by continued practice, how 
to express himself in plain language. He can learn 
this only by talking. The teacher must begin when 
the child enters school, and require him to answer 
questions, and tell about things in clear statements." 
—Miss R., P. S. 75, Manhattan. 

(8) Picture Stories. — "Sometimes I read a 
story appropriate to the season. Children repro- 
duce the story on paper in picture form. The 
teacher then calls on one or two to tell about the 
picture. At other times the children tell any story 
they like with a picture, and then tell me the story 
they have illustrated."— Miss M., P. S. 166, Man- 
hattan. 

(4) Correlate with Reading. — I have seen oral 
composition very successfully accomplished in the 
following way: A child would read a "story" on 
the board like "What can you do, little girl?" and 
before he sat down the teacher would say, "Now, 
John, you make a story;" whereupon the little 
fellow would give an original sentence; as, "The little 
girl can roll a hoop." The exercise was so skilfully 



34 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

conducted that within the short period of ten 
minutes every pupil in the class had read a I'story" 
and invented a related composition. 

(5) Development Lessons in Reading. — I have 
seen exceedingly skilful work in the way of oral 
composition done in connection with the reading 
lesson of the first year. In order to be successful, 
such an exercise must have plenty of "go" in it. 
If the teacher is slow and tactless the interest will 
not last long enough to accomplish anything of 
value. The teachers that are really successful with 
very young children are lively, full of resource, and 
thoroughly prepared. They know before taking 
up a lesson just how they are going to conduct it. 
When the lesson period arrives there is no time lost 
in getting ready. As soon as the children have 
their places in the book, the questions begin to fly 
around the room, and in an incredibly short time 
every pupil has had something to say, and all have 
had the benefit of mentally doing the work assigned 
to each. 

It is impossible to give in a narrative the effect 
of the celerity, intense interest, and charming 
naturalness that characterize a good development 
lesson. Here is a specimen of such an exercise 
witnessed by the writer in a first year class: 

T. — "Now children, look at the picture. John; 
what is the boy doing?" 
- p_''The boy is listening to the little girl." 

T.— "Mary?" 

P. — "The boy is standing up." 



DEVICES 35 

r.— "James?" 

P. — "The boy is holding on to the collar of the 
dog." 

T.— "What is the little girl doing, Katherine?" 

P. — "The little girl is reading out of a book." 

r.— "Paul?" 

P. — "The little girl is telling the dog something." 

r.— "Susie?" 

P. — -"The little girl is playing that she is a teacher." 

T.— "Now, children, look at the dog and tell 
what he is doing. Emma?" 

P.— "The dog is listening to the little girl." 

r.— "Minnie?" 

P. — "The dog thinks he is in school." 

T. — "Now let us look at the words and see who 
can tell us what the dog's name is." 

A number of children try, and get it wrong; but it 
is a game and is exceedingly interesting. Finally, one 
succeeds in finding the name and then the names of 
tha boy and girl are learned in a similar way. 

The principal merit of the lesson thus observed 
was that the children did the talking and every 
one used a complete sentence. The teacher used 
the least possible number of words herself. Her 
unique way of stating a problem and giving it to 
the entire class to work out silently, and then calling 
upon three or four individuals, by merely pro- 
nouncing their names, to give the results of their 
efforts, is particularly commendable. In a good 
development lesson the teacher minimizes her words; 
the pupils do the talking, and it is not necessary to 



36 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

remind each child that he must express himself in 
a complete sentence. That necessity is so funda- 
m.ental that the wise teacher converts it into habit 
the first week of the term. 

(6) Play that the Teacher is the Audience. 
— *'In oral composition I try to make the children 
feel that I want to know something about a subject 
on which they are well posted, — usually something 
that belongs to them. They seem to take more 
delight in telling me about 'my dog,' 'my cat,' 'our 
tadpoles,' etc. Often the oral composition is on 
'what I saw on my way to school,' or 'what I saw 
in the park.'"— Miss C, P. S. 166, Manhattan. 

(7) Questions. — "For a little written lesson, I 
use the questions: 'What do you see in the room?' 

Children answer, 'I see ' 'What do you hear?' 

Children answer, 'I hear .' Some days I call 

four or five boys to the front of the room and give 
each an object; as, a book, an apple, a pear, a fan, 
and ask, 'What has John?' What has Frank? 

What has Dan?' Children write, 'John has .' 

'Dan has ,' etc."— Miss M., P. S. 166, Manhattan. 

(8) Try to Overcome Diffidence and Timidity. 
— "Our difficulty arises from the diffidence of chil- 
dren rather than a lack of interest in composition. 
The little folks are afraid to hear themselves talk. 
They require much encouragement. By asking 
questions on what they like best we may induce a 
state of self-forgetfulness and thus start the flow 
of ideas."— Miss A., P. S. 77, Manhattan. 

(9) Number Work. — "Number work affords end- 



DEVICES 37 

less opportunity for oral expression. After having 
developed with objects the combinations: 3-1-2=; 
6 — 3=, 2X2=, 6-^2=, etc.; place the symbols 
on the blackboard and let the children make up 
their own number stories, using the symbols given. 
I offer a star for the best story. Children love to 
invent and try very hard to have their stories 
unique. By number stories is meant applied 
arithmetic; as, for example, 'Mary has six cents 
and buys three pencils at a penny apiece.'" — Miss 
M., P. S. 166, Manhattan. 

(10) Game of Grab Bag.— After a nature lesson; 
say on the cow, I take slips of paper three by two 
inches, and write on each a word introduced during 
the lesson. Here is the list actually used: The cow; 
red, white, brown, eat, grass, hay, drink, water, horns; 
hoof, milk, butter, cheese, buttons, hair^ Each child 
receives a slip and is asked not to let any one see 
his secret. The children then volunteer to give 
stories, using the words on the slips. Sometimes we 
play grab-bag and put all the slips in a box. The 
children close their eyes and pick out a slip, write 
the word on the blackboard and the class raise hands 
to give a story containing the word. The pupil 
giving the best story may draw a slip the next time. 
This same device may be used in spring lessons on 
flowers."— Miss M., P. S. 166, Manhattan. 

Second and Third Years— Oral Composition 

(11) Develop Ideas. — "Never use in a class of 
young children such an expression as 'Give me a 



38 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

sentence for the word ^hat' for if you do, the 
interest attaches itself to the words 'sentence' and 
'hat.' It is better to call up ideas in the minds of 
children by such questions as these: 'What covers 
your head while you are coming to school?' or 'How 
is your hat trimmed?' or 'Of what color is your 
hat?'"— Miss L., P. S. 58, Manhattan. 

Third Year — Written Composition 

(12) Let Children Supply Missing Parts. — 
"This device is used in 3 A, and is an exercise in 
writing complete sentences, or even an entire para- 
graph. It is used by the teacher instead of the 
ordinary reproduction that follows the conversation; 
Nature Study, or Reading, and consists in writing 
a number of incomplete or unfinished sentences 
upon the blackboard. The word or words omitted 
by the teacher are supplied by the pupils, and the 
pupils who can supply all the required words find 
much pleasure in this exercise. Children who would 
otherwise be unable to form a correct sentence, in 
this way seem to gain confidence, and frequently 
write the entire story correctly, or describe a picture 
accurately."— M. A. R., P. S. 179, Manhattan. 

(13) Let Children Construct a Model. — "This 
device is used in 3A, where the pupils are required 
to copy model paragraphs. Instead of this model 
being the teacher's composition, we strive to build 
it out of the material supplied by the children. In 
answer to questions, or from an outline, each pupil 
is required to write a correct statement. The 



DEVICES 39 

teacher selects the best sentences given by the pupils, 
and with them forms her model paragraph or model 
composition. Each child is anxious to have his 
sentence selected, and consequently much care and 
attention are given to the work." — M. A. R., P. S. 
179, Manhattan. 

(14) Develop Ideas.— "The first requisite is 
familiarity with the subject. I take such subjects 
as 'Snow,' 'The Squirrel,' or 'What I Bought with 
My Ten Cents.' The written is always preceded 
by oral analysis. Sometimes I give information by 
reading. At other times the children and I have 
talks until I feel assured that each one has clear 
ideas. The second step is to write. My compo- 
sitions never contain more than two sentences. I 
encourage the children to use just the word they 
need, whether they can spell it or not. I hold my- 
self ready to write on the board any word for whose 
spelling a child asks." — Miss L., P. S, 58, Manhattan. 

(15) Develop the Power of Criticism. — "After 
compositions are written different children are 
asked to read what they have produced. Two or 
three usually copy their work upon the board 
exactly as it appears on the papers. Kindly criti- 
cism is invited, and faults of capitalizing, spelling, 
punctuation, and construction are corrected." — 
Miss L., P. S. 58, Manhattan. 

Third to Eighth Years— Written Composition 

(16) Letter- Writing is a convenient point of 
contact for beginners in composition. This device. 



40 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

is suggested by Miss Spalding* in her admirable 
little book on elementary composition. "I am 
convinced," she says, ''that, in order to gain coop- 
eration from the pupil, — and this is absolutely 
essential, — two things must be given him: a sense 
of security, of confidence, and a glow of delight. 
The sense of security the feeling of confidence will; 
I believe, be gained by working together at the 
very outset." The transition from oral to written 
composition may be made by showing the need of 
being able to write, as for example, when one wishes 
to speak to an absent friend. Then comes the 
cooperative class letter — "a simple, brief letter, 
contrived by putting all the heads together; a letter 
neatly written out and actually sent somewhere." 

Interest in the subject will, of course, be deepened 
by the reading of children's letters written by 
famous men and women, such as Eugene Field's; 
Edwin Booth's, Macaulay's, Phillips Brooks's. These 
will reveal a charming spirit and create the moral 
atmosphere which stimulates the feelings and 
imaginations of children and thus makes composi- 
tion easy and natural. It gives the pupil a motive 
for writing; he has something to say, and someone 
to whom he wishes to say it. These are the two 
conditions of successful composition in real life — 
a message and an audience. 

(17) Anonymous Compositions. — "Sometimes 
have short compositions handed in unsigned. Pass 

*The Problem of Elementary Composition, by Elizabeth 
EL Spalding. Heath & Co., 1897, New York. 



DEVICES 41 

them out and as they are read let the readers guess 
who the writers are. Let the teacher write a com- 
position occasionally and slip it in with the others." 
—Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. 

(18) Picture Stories. — Show the class a picture 
which suggests a story. Let them write the story. 
Tell half the class to make the end pathetic, and the 
other half to bring the narrative to a happy con- 
clusion. — See Shaw's -'Composition by Practice," 
p. 104. 

(19) Partnership. — "Divide the class into 
groups of two and call the members of the group 
partners. Try to have partners of equal ability. 
Have them write a composition which shall be a 
joint production; or have one start it and the other 
finish it; or have one write a composition and the 
other write a criticism of it." — Miss J., P. S. 120, 
Manhattan. 

(20) Practice Variety of Expression. — "We 
have most interesting exercises in trying to say the 
same thing in different ways. We alter expressions, 
turning them about in every possible way, changing 
beginnings, using figurative language, changing 
phrases to adjectives, and all in quite an informal 
way." 

The following illustrations of this form of drill 
are furnished by Miss Schoonmaker, Principal 
P. S. 119, Manhattan: 
(a) Verbs: 
She came to meet me. 
She hurried to meet me. 



42 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

She ran to meet me. 
She sprang to meet me. 
"The waves beside them danced, but they outdid 
the sparMing v/aves in glee." 
(6) Specific vs. general terms: 
General: We had nice things to eat. 
Specific: We had thin, dainty chicken sandwiches; 
olives, grapes, and little cakes with pink icing on 
them. 

(c) Synonyms: 

The day is clear, bright, sunny, pleasant, beautiful; 
fine. 

(d) Color Words: (7th and 8th years) : 
Bright as the sun. 

Yellow as gold. 
Blue as the sky. 
Pink as a rose. 
White as snow. 
Black as night. 

(e) Manner words: 

She wrote slowly, rapidly. 

She spoke gently, clearly, kindly. 
'-"The wind came whistling, howling, shrieking; 
moaning, sighing, sobbing." 

(21) News Items Condensed. — " News items may 
be used to secure clear thinking, and definite, con- 
cise statements. Such items should be uniformly 
mounted on paper four inches by six inches. Each 
pupil brings to school a mounted clipping from a 
paper or magazine; he is responsible for the pro- 
nunciation and meaning of any unusual word. 



DEVICES 43 

The reading of the items and oral reproduction fol- 
low. The teacher, selecting four or five of the 
most interesting, uses them for class work, each 
pupil writing his own abstract of the several item.s. 

"Variety of expression, topic sentences, periodic 
sentences are thereby practically taught and intel- 
ligently grasped even by the 'slow' pupils. The 
following is a specimen of items condensed in accord- 
ance with this plan: 

Florrie Holzwasser, Class 8A. 

"European representatives called upon Secretary 
Hay to-day to consider diplomatic business. 

"The discussion considered the attitude which 
would be assumed by the United States toward the 
* Panama Canal Treaty.' 

" Although Alaska is partly within the Arctic 
Circle, its fertile tracts of ground produce suflGcient 
grain and vegetables to sustain three million people. 

"At present there are gigantic spots on the sun's 
surface, into one of which the earth might fall, and 
be consumed as a snowflake in a bed of burning 
coals." F. N. T., P. S. 119. 

(22) The Topic Sentence. — "From the 4th year 
through the 8th year, the 'topic sentence' may be 
taught in connection with paragraph structure. 

(a) Illustration (4th or 5th year) : 

Flowers of many colors hloom in the spring. There 
is the trailing arbutus that comes up while the snow 
is still on the ground. It is pink and white; it has 
a sweet perfume. The dandelion is yellow as gold ; 
it shines in the green grass. The buttercup nods 



44 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

to her friend, the daisy. The daisy wears a pretty 
white frill about her bright little face. The blue 
violets play hide-and-seek under their dark green 
leaves. 

(6) Other Topic Sentences: 

(1) Description : 

New York has many beautiful parks. 

(2) Narration and Description: 
Boston has an historical environment. 

(3) Narration: 

The story of '"' Endymion" is beautiful. 

(4) Exposition; 

The Panama Canal is greatly needed. 

(5) Description and Exposition: 
Radium is an important discovery. 

(6) Argumentation: 

The pen is mightier than the sword. 

"Saci topic sentences may be used for 'isolated 
paragraphs/ or may be elaborated into several 
'related paragraphs/ that will constitute a theme 
or essay familiar to children as a 'composition,' " — 
Emma C. Schoonmaker, P, S. 119, Manhattan. 

(23) General Exercises. — A n o t h e r device; 
which has been successfully employed to develop 
interest in composition in classes of the fifth and 
sixth years, takes the form of "general exercises," 
A period of thirty or forty minutes is reserved on 
Friday afternoon for a sort of literary entertainment. 
The children are organized into groups, and these 
groups take their turns in preparing the program 
of exercises. The element of surprise lends addi- 



DEVICES 45 

tional pleasure to the occasion. None but the 
teacher and the group committee know what form 
the entertainment will take. There may be songs; 
recitations, original compositions, summaries of 
interesting books read, biographical sketches of great 
men, and a dozen other novelties. It will be noticed 
that the necessary conditions of composition- 
writing are here present, — something to communicate 
and an audience to hear it. 

Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Years — Oral Composition 

(24) Selected Quotations. — "Occasionally 
select a number of quotations bearing upon a given 
topic. Have these read silently, without hint or 
instruction from the teacher. Allow use of reference 
books. After the reading call upon several to give 
expression to the thought as they understand it. 
Compare, criticise, correct, let class decide. 

''At the conclusion of this oral work, arrange the 
topics in orderly sequence and let the children write 
their compositions." — Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. 

(25) Anecdotes.—" Once in a while tell the chil- 
dren to read an anecdote or joke at home and come 
prepared to tell it. End the lesson by requiring 
each pupil to write one of the anecdotes related in 
the class."— Miss J., P. S. 120. 

Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Years— Written Composition 

(26) Completing STORiES.^Give children the 
beginning of a story and let them end it, drawing 
upon their imaginations for the facts. — See Shaw's 



46 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

English Composition hy Practice, P. 39. See also 
Chap. XII of this volume, No. 248. 

(27) Describing Known Persons. — "Tell chil- 
dren to write a description of a person known to all 
members of the class, without disclosing the indi- 
vidual's name. Have the descriptions read aloud 
and let the class name the person. If the correct 
name is given the portrait is life-like. Show that the 
secret of successful descriptive writing is in selecting 
the characteristic feature of the person or thing 
described."— Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. 

(28) Five-Minute Compositions. — "Sometimes 
have short compositions limited to five minutes or 
so, written without topics. Have these read aloud, 
generally calling upon the readiest writers, but some- 
times slipping in the work of a poor writer. In the 
latter case do not call attention to any comparison. 
Criticize orally the compositions read, using about 
five or ten minutes for this purpose, then have 
another written and proceed as before." — Miss J., 
P. S. 120, Manhattan. 

(29) Drill in Variety of Expression. — Lan- 
guage lessons should be given whose object is train- 
ing in variety of expression. For this purpose active 
and passive forms of the verb may be employed as 
soon as the different kinds of sentences are under- 
stood. These offer an excellent opportunity for 
variety. A simple sentence may be followed by a 
complex one, and this in turn by a compound or 
simple one. The declarative form may sometimes 
give place to the interrogative. Direct quotation 



DEVICES 47 

may alternate with indirect narration. In the high- 
est grades pupils may be taught the distinction 
between periodic and loose construction. The 
teacher's duty is to bring these and other methods 
of securing variety to the attention of children and 
to show them by systematic training how to attain 
this very desirable quality of style. By way of 
example the teacher may show that it is possible to 
begin a composition on, say Longfellow, in fifty 
different ways. It should be the ambition of every 
pupil to be original. It might even be a wise plan 
to prohibit the use of a stock sentence like, "Long- 
fellow was born in 1807," thus compelling pupils to 
exercise their ingenuity in expressing the fact in 
another form. 

Seventh and Eighth Years — Written Composition 

(30) The Model. — "The most successful of all 
methods is the imitation of models. There is a 
natural love of imitation which makes the effort to 
arouse interest less of a bug-bear. The composition- 
model should be carefully studied. Then the chil- 
dren should be set to imitate it in work on a similar 
subject. I think the book on School Composition"^, 
by Dr. Maxwell and Miss Johnston, is the greatest aid 
in teaching this subject that has ever come into my 
hands."— Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. 

(30) Lessons in Grammar. — If you want pupils 
to write sentences in grammar, say simple, com- 
pound, complex, declarative, interrogative, etc.; 

♦American Book Company. 



48 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

let them combine these sentences into the form of a 
narrative or description, on some subject with which 
they are famiHar. Let different kinds of sentences 
be alternated. The principle involved is this: Except 
in cases where automatic action is the end, only that 
drill has educational value which secures interest 
by combining repetition with constructive activity. 

(31) Class Organization. — In the upper grades, 
especially the last year of school, the "general exer- 
cises" described in another place may be conducted 
according to the forms of parliamentary procedure, 
and thus supplement the work in elocution and 
civics, as well as in composition. For a number of 
years the writer employed this device successfully 
while he was in charge of a graduating class in an 
elementary school. The classes, as soon as organ- 
ized, became "The Spellbinders."* 

This class organization had a president, a vice- 
president, a secretary, a treasurer, and an editor. 
The term of office was for two regular meetings; that 
is, for two weeks. This afforded an opportunity for 
constant rotation in office. About twenty boys had 
a chance to serve as president during the year. 

The editor prepared a manuscript paper which he 
read at the meetings. Four contributors were named 
for each issue. These were obliged to assist the 
editor by furnishing original contributions. Every 
article before it went into the paper had to be sub- 



*The "Spellbinders" are described from the point of 
view of class discipline in the author's "The Art of Class 
Management and Discipline." A. S, Barnes & Co., 1903. 



DEVICES 49 

mitted to the teacher for correction. All editorials; 
and the paper as a whole, were submitted by the 
editor before he read the same. 

The secretary was obliged to write out his minutes 
very carefully and completely, and after correction 
by the teacher, to copy them into the minute book. 
Nine volumes of such minutes, containing the doings 
of successive -'Spellbinders" during five years, are 
among the priceless possessions of the writer. Fol- 
lowing is a copy of the minutes of a regular meeting: 
Minutes for January 17, 1896. 
A regular meeting was called to order on the above date 
by Pres. Kronimus. The minutes of the previous meeting 
were read and adopted. 

The Committee on Class Cry submitted the following cry: 
Rah! Rah! Rah! 
Cis! Boom! Bah! 
Spellbinders! Spellbinders! 
Ha! Ha! Ha! 

Signed by H. Strassburger, 
E. Fischer 
Committee. 
The report was unanimously adopted. 
The Nominating Committee then made the following 
report: 

For President — Duncan, Epstein. 
For Vice-President — ^Render, O'Connor. 
For Secretary — Stoll, Evers. 
For Editor — Adams, Wetzler. 

The following independent nominations were made: 
For President — Joseph S. Taylor. 
For Vice-President — Kronimus, Carr. 

After balloting, debate was announced on the following 
question: "Resolved, That Washington did more for his 
country than Grant." 



50 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Speakers — 

Affirmative — Regan, Joyce. 
Negative — Render, Adams. 

The House decided in favor of the affirmative on the 
arguments produced. 

At this point Mr. Fischer moved that the Society adjourn. 
The motion was lost. 

In general debate those who spoke were Messrs. Carr and 
Taylor. 

Mr. Fischer moved that a committee of four be appointed 
to wait upon the Principal and ask him to speak on the 
subject. The motion was lost. 

The editor then read the Spellbinders' Weekly. 

The Tellers made the following report: 

For President — Duncan, 8; Taylor, 9; Epstein, 5. 

For Vice-President — Render, 14; Carr, 2; Kronimus, 1; 
O'Connor, 4. 

For Secretary — Stoll, 11; Evers, 6; Moritz, 5. 

For Editor — Fischer, 16; Adams, 4; Wetzler, 2. 

In accordance with the report the Chair declared the 
following officers elected: 

President — Joseph S. Taylor. 

Vice-President — Frank J. Render. 

Secretary — George Stoll. 

Editor — Emil Fischer. 

The Program Committee reported the following program 
for January 24, 1896: 

Referred Question — "Should we have a Greater New 
York? "—Joseph S. Taylor. 

Essay — M. Epstein. 

Reading — John Walsh. 

Contributors to Weekly — Duncan, Stoll, Carr, Strasburger. 
Signed by Committee — Walsh Duncan, Moran. 

There being no further business on hand, the Society 
adjourned. 

M. Epstein, Secretary. 



DEVICES 51 

Many of the contributions to the Spellbinders' 
Weekly had considerable merit. The paper was 
thoroughly enjoyed by all, and every contributor 
had a motive for doing his very best. Between 
serious articles there usually were sandwiched 
original jokes made at the expense of the members. 
In this game of making jokes the teacher enjoyed 
no immunity; and he usually turned contributor 
himself, sometimes taking occasion to hit off in a 
jolly little paragraph the follies and foibles of the 
boys. The following parody on Holmes's "The 
Boys," was written by a "Spellbinder" for one of 
the issues of the Weekly. 

The Spellbinders.* 
By Joseph T. O'Brien. 

We are Spellbinders as you are well aware, 
At the top of society — we're always there; 
We are not very ancient, but still we can speak 
And read almost anything, be it Latin or Greek. 

Our president and officers are always in file. 
Our Weekly is published in elegant style. 
We're forty in number — Who says we are more? 
He's tipsy, young Spellbinder, — show him the door. 

That fellow's an author — and he's out of sight; 
This one is the boss, when he lands with his right; 
There is a clergyman — I now forget his name; 
He preaches the Gospel, and believes in the same. 

This lad is a doctor, a good one at that, 
Although he has the appearance of being a quack; 



*The references to boys of the class are very felicitous 



52 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

He performs operations — pulls teeth by the score; 
He'll become a professor after a few years more. 

That boy with a grave, geographical face, 
Made believe he had ridden a bicycle race, 
And all his good friends, they thought it was true, 
So they bought him a medal, a trick they did rue. 

There's a boy, you should know, with Websterian brain. 
He spoke for three hours all out in the rain; 
He's not very gymnastic — but still he can run, 
If you saw him go skating you'd laugh at the fun. 

His first name is Sammie, as you are aware; 

A doctor he'll be if he ever gets there; 

When he speaks for our members in eloquent style, 

We call him "the Squire" from the Emerald Isle. 

And there's a nice youngster of excellent pith; 
Fate has concealed him by naming him Smith; 
But he's a good member and a popular sport. 
The sign at his hotel is, "The Spellbinders' Resort." 

Look there and you'll see Johnnie Marsh of renown; 
He has the nicest whiskers in all this great town; 
He soon will be married to a lady of fame. 
She's the pride of the Bowery, and Sarah's her name. 

You see that boy crying? — don't think it is fun: 
Some one has punched him and he couldn't run. 
His name it is Carney — a pugilistic crack. 
Don't make too free with him, lest you get a smack. 

Yes, we are Spellbinders, now and forever more; 
Nothing can ever part us from the society we adore. 
We always will remember, no matter what comes to pass, 
The time when we were Spellbinders in Mr. Taylor's class. 



DEVICES 53 

The effect of this organization upon the Spell- 
binders was very remarkable. It created a love 
for composition that I have never seen equaled. 
The boys were always delighted when composition 
hour come around. Many of them developed quite 
a little fluency in written expression. One Spell- 
binder wrote a small drama, entitled '* The Troubles 
of Mr. and Mrs. Santa Claus/' which was played by 
Spellbinders in the class-room one day before 
Christmas, all the teachers of the school being invited 
to witness the performance. 

The essence of the device here described is that 
it embodies the principle of social cooperation; it 
gives the pupil a motive to write; it provides a 
public to read or hear what he has written; it 
affords an abundance of practice; and it develops 
the individuality of the pupil. 



VI. 

Forms of Composition. 

1. Gradation — The following outline exhibits 
the various forms or kinds of written composition 
in the order of difficulty: 



(a) 


(1) Copy. 


(&) 


(2) Dictation. 


(c) 


(2) Reproduction. 


id) 


(3) Original — by question. 


ie) 


(4) Original — from imagination. 


(/) 


(4) Original — from model. 


(9) 


(4) Original — from topics. 


(h) 


(6) Abstract. 


(i) 


(7) Elaboration. 



The figures in parenthesis indicate approximately 
in what year of school each kind of work may be 
commenced. It is assumed that in each of these 
years, except in the first, some or all of the work 
of the preceding years will be continued. 

54 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 55 

2. Copy. — During the first term of the first year 
nothing more than the copy of words and single 
sentences can be undertaken. During the second 
half of the year probably easy single sentences 
might be written from dictation. This, however; 
would depend on circumstances, and it would not 
be safe to require it. 

During all the succeeding grades copy has its uses. 
In the first place, much work is necessarily copied 
by children into their notebooks. Accuracy in this 
case should be insisted on in every class. Note- 
books should be systematically inspected by teach- 
ers and at least once a term by principals. 

Many good writers have told us that they acquired 
a style by copying good literature. Benjamin 
Franklin is perhaps the most familiar example of 
this class. Letters, notes, and business forms, are 
best learned by making correct copies and then 
trying to imitate the model. Memory gems, also; 
should be carefully copied in the higher grades for 
future reference. 

3. Dictation. — This is removed one degree of 
abstractness from copy. In copying, very little of 
the form need be carried in the memory at one time. 
In dictation, usually an entire phrase or thought 
group has to be remembered until it is recorded. It 
differs from copy also in the fact that it is a conver- 
sion into motor form of auditory rather than visual 
impressions. 

The following directions must be heeded if dicta- 
tion is to possess educational value: 



56 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(a) Limit the pupil in time. He should write as 
rapidly as possible. In order to secure a standard 
for measuring the time needed by children, the teach- 
er should herself write what she dictates. Of course; 
the younger the children are, the more time they 
require. 

(6) Dictate thought-groups; never single words. 
Miss Julia Richman* tested her pupils and found 
that the average number of words they were able to 
carry varied as follows : Second year, 8 ; third year; 
11; fourth year, 12; fifth year, 12; sixth year, 16; 
seventh year, 16. Miss Richman's article on dicta- 
tion is an admirable one and is recommended to the 
reader. 

(c) Compel your pupils to carry as many words as 
possible. 

(d) Never repeat a dictation; unless for a very 
special reason. 

(e) Let the children first study the matter to be 
dictated. 

(/) After dictation, let each pupil compare his 
work with the original and correct his own errors. 
(g) Donotrecopy. 

4. Reproduction. — In dictation from eight to 
sixteen words ars carried in the memory at one time 
(according to Miss Richman's test) . In reproduction; 
the entire story, paragraph, or excerpt has to be 
remembered. This cannot be done with perfect 



*School Work, Vol. I, p. 73. (70 Fifth Ave., New York.) 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 57 

accuracy; and therefore the exercise involves more 
or less originality. In this respect it is an advance 
upon dictation, in which an effort is made to record 
the original, word for word. 

5. Original — by Question. — The easiest method 
of composing is that in which each sentence is sug- 
gested and partly determined by a question. This 
device may therefore be employed in a grade where 
original compositions are for the first time required. 
Great skill in framing the questions is required. 
With proper care the matter may be so presented and 
the questions so put that the children's answers will 
show variety and represent individual effort. 

6. Original — from Imagination. — On first con- 
sideration it may seem that several forms placed 
later are easier than this. Is it not easier to write 
from a topical outline than from nothing? I think 
not. An outline is an abstract. In my experience 
children find it rather difficult to endow a lot of dry 
bones with flesh and blood. Topical outlines are 
attempts at logical order; and children find it irkr 
some to be logical — that is, logical in our way. For 
this reason they are quite comfortable if you give 
them a suggestive picture and then bid them put in 
words the story fancy reads therein. An excellent 
illustration of original dialogue invented by children 
in their play, is the following quotation from E. H» 
Russell's Child Observations. *" 



*D. C. Heath, 1896. 



58 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Gertie. Age, 7 years. Louise. Age, 10 years. Each 
of these girls sat in a rocking-chair, holding a doll. 

Gertie. — How do you do. Missus? 

Louise. — Pretty well, thank you. 

Gertie. — Don't this train go fast? 

Louise. — Oh, awful fast! How is your baby? 

Gertie. — She is pretty well, only she got her leg broke off 
the other day. I'm taking her to Washington. The Presi- 
dent is going to fix it. 

Louise. — Oh, that's too bad! How long does it take to 
go to Washington? 

Gertie. — Only ten days and a week. 

Louise. — I should think the poor baby would be dead. 

Gertie. — Oh, no, Missus! I'm going to be there to-night. 
My husband lives there. Where are you going. Missus? 
Your baby is real good, ain't she? 

Louise. — Yes, ma'am, she is. I'm going to Connecticut. 
My covisin Hattie Nichols lives there, and my Aunt Jane lives 
there. 

Gertie. — What is your baby's name? 

Louise {After hesitating a moment). My baby's name is Gertie. 

Gertie (laughing). — Why, that's my name, and my baby's 
name, too. 

Louise. — That's funny, ain't it? 

Suddenly Louise said, "Ding-dong, ding-dong! now the 
train must stop." She then tried to make a sound like a 
train stopping, and said, "This is Connecticut; I'm very 
sorry to go, but I must. Good-by." 

She then left the room. 

Gertie now rocked faster than before, and talked to her 
doll. She said, "Wait a minute, wait a minute; mamma 
has something in her pocket for you." She took out a rubber 
ring, and put it on the dell's head, saying, "You're a nice 
little baby. Here's Washington! Do you see my husband, 
baby? He's going to take us to the President, to fix your 
poor leg." She went into the next room, where Louise was 
arranging a tea-set. 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 59 

A favorite form of imaginative writing with chil- 
dren is a narrative involving the conversation of 
animals, dolls, companions, etc. The following 
composition on "Playing Dolls" was written in 
school by a girl ten years of age and was afterward 
dictated from memory by the child to the writer: 

Playing Dolls. 

Come on, Duff, let's play dolls. What is yours going to 
wear? Mine is going to wear her pink dress. I Uke her 
blue one best, but she cannot wear that because it is her 
best. Your doll's name is Ruth, isn't it? Mine is Minnie. 
Shall we take a walk? I am going to let my doll wear her 
best hat. There's Mum, and Gertrude, and Miller. Let's 
ask them to take a walk. I'll go and ask Miss Maud if I 
can go. * * * 

She says I can go, but I musn't stay late, as it will soon be 
supper time. I am going to scold my doll if she soils her 
dress, because it has just been washed. 

Oh, Minnie, see what you have done! Your shoes and 
dress are dirty. Go right into the house, you naughty child! 

I guess it must be supper time now. Duff, so good-night 
and last look and last tag! K. R. T. 

Here is another illustration furnished by Public 
School 93, Manhattan. The author of the composi- 
tion was a pupil in the 8A grade and wrote the essay 
as a regular class exercise under the eye of the 
teacher: 

Autobiography of a Mouse, or A Few Cheesy Paragraphs 

I am but a mouse, very small but at large. I intend to 
tell in a concise manner some experiences that I have had. 

My mother, a widow, is mourning the loss of my father, 
who, when in active life, had a great desire to be in the " Smart 
Set." He was succeeding fairly well until some smart lady 



60 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

set a trap, and, he being rather nosey, met his doom. This 
being a snap for me, I wandered away from our abode, a 
magnificent larder, and sought adventures. 

Of course, the first thing I got into a hole and when I got 
out a feast was spread before me, but unfortunately a pane 
of glass separated us; this giving me a pain, I resolved to 
make an investigation and, if possible, enter from another 
quarter. Happily, I struck an entrance to the entrancing 
lay-out, and after various calculations to reach it, set to 
work to change my g'rth. There was every imaginable deli- 
cate preparation, even limburger, after gorging which I saw 
paculiar lights and started to light out; but I must have 
wobbled, for I imagined I was sea-sick and everything went 
round faster and faster until my poor head swam. Then I 
must have fallen, for the shock brought me back to my 
senses sufficiently to see my enemy, a massive cat, glaring 
at me- I certainly tried to get away very quickly, but he 
got my tail between his teeth and bit it off, while I went 
through a crevice. 

And thus ends my tale. 

February 23, 1905. Annie Thomas. 

7. Original — from the Model. — The method of 
using models is usually as follows: A model bit of 
writing is selected from a standard author, carefully 
analyzed by the pupil, and then imitated by writing 
on a similar (but not the same) topic. The argu- 
ments for and against the use of models are succinctly 
stated in Carpenter, Baker, and Scott's "The Teach- 
ing of English";* while the method is carefully 
worked out in Maxwell and Johnston's School Com- 
position.! 



*P. 135 (Longmans, 1903). 
fAmerican Book Company, 1902. 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 61 

The following authorized abstract of part of a lec- 
ture delivered by Dr. William H. Maxwell on "The 
Use of Models in the Seventh and Eighth Years," is 
reprinted from " Practical School Problems," edited 
by the writer, and is offered as a succinct explana- 
tion of this form of composition teaching: 

The Use of Models in Seventh and Eighth Years. 

The normal conditions of writing are these: 

(a) The writer has something he wishes to say. 

(6) He assumes that some one is interested in what he 
writes. 

In the class-room these conditions are naturally not present. 
Hence the teacher must create them. This he can do — 

(a) By limiting the composition to subjects that children 
know. 

(6) By finding something in literature that shows how 
common things may be made interesting by the way they 
are treated. 

If, for instance, we take a game played by the children, 
they see nothing particularly interesting in it for a compo- 
sition. But if we read some great writer's description of 
such a game, they are intensely interested, and by skilful 
handling one can arouse in them the feeling, "I have some- 
thing to say, and some one would like to hear it." This 
audience is the class itself, and it may be made a powerful 
educative force in many ways. 

Biography is full of examples of the value of imitation in 
learning to acquire style. Johnson recommended the 
style of Addison for this purpose. Franklin followed John- 
son's advice. Stevenson acknowledges, that he employed a 
similar method. 

(1) How TO Select a Model. 

(a) The first requisite is that it must possess literary 
value. Teachers should not, as a rule, undertake to manu- 
facture models. 



62 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(b) Each model should be in itself complete. 

(c) Models should not be too long; five hundred words 
should be the maximum. 

(d) The model should appeal directly to the child's interest 
and knowledge. 

(e) It must illustrate either exposition, description, or 
narration. 

(2) How TO Use the Model. 

(a) Every pupil must himself read the model. Even a 
blackboard copy is not near enough to the child. He should 
hold it in his hand, so that he may study it at close range. 

(b) By some way we must get the pupil to appreciate the 
merit of the model. 

(c) Each model is to be selected for one special character- 
istic. This point is to be impressed upon the pupil. Not 
more than one characteristic is to be looked for in any one 
specimen. Among the things to look for are clearness, 
choice of words, and in every instance the plan that was in 
the writer's mind (outline). 

(3) How TO Imitate the Model. 

(a) After studying the model, put it aside, and let the 
children reproduce it (not paraphrase it) as nearly as they can. 

(b) Let each write an imitation of it on a kindred subject. 
If the model describes a man, the imitation will describe 
another man. If the model is a fable, let the class invent a 
similar fable. If a letter is the model, a similar one is 
written, or the model is answered in the appropriate way. 

Here Dr. Maxwell read from the "Hoosier Schoolboy" a 
description of a game, and then he read a number of children's 
compositions describing other games after the manner of the 
model. The study of this description resulted in the dis- 
covery that it is so clear that one who never heard of the 
game could play it after reading what the author wrote. 
Clearness is the excellence to be imitated. The plan was 
discovered to include — 

(1) An introduction. 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 63 

(2) A body; namely, the description 

(3) A conclusion; why the game is interesting. 

A Christmas letter from Phillips Brooks revealed the farct 
that one must constantly keep in mind, when writing a 
letter, the person to whom the letter is addressed. The 
children were then requested to write a suitable answer 
to the letter, drawing upon their imagination for the 
materials. 

The fable of "The Wolf and the Lamb" was used to show 
what the teacher can do to assist children to get the most 
value out of a model. Point out the nature of a fable; 
also the moral. Invent similar fables; as, "The Hen and 
the Worm," "The Cat and the Bird." The teacher may 
make an imitation to assist the class. A very clever one 
was read. 

8. Original — from Topics. — This method of 
composing is more difficult for children than the 
others thus far considered, because (a) it is less 
interesting, and (6) because it involves more 
preparation on the part of the pupil. It is not 
enough to give an outline to a class and then direct 
them to write the composition. The outline should 
either be discovered or invented. In the case of 
writing from models, as in the upper grades, the 
outline will be discovered by the study of the model. 
When the pupil is writing on a theme without 
directions from the teacher, the outline must be 
invented. In the lower grades the outline should 
be the joint product of the teacher and class working 
in cooperation. The material, whether presented 
for the purpose by the teacher or drawn from the 
experience of the children, must be classified. This 
may be done by discussion, by suggestion, and by 



64 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

question. The classification will be recorded on 
the board in the form of an outline. 

One way of effecting such classification is to draw 
out from the little people such statements on the 
given subject as may occur to them. These are 
written on the board regardless of logical order. 
The reading of the sentences in this haphazard order 
will show that they do not properly constitute a 
story or composition on account of a lack of plan. 
The need of a plan is thus made evident, and when 
one has been agreed upon, the children may be 
allowed to write individual compositions in accord- 
ance with the outline. 

This is a convenient occasion for teaching the 
nature and need of the paragraph; for each topic in 
the outline will usually require a separate paragraph 
for treatment, 

9. The Abstract. — The outhne is a mere indica- 
tion of the logical order of the topics. The abstract 
also preserves the logical order, but covers up the 
outline by means of condensed narrative, descrip- 
tion, or exposition. The essential characteristic of 
the abstract consists in giving the substance of the 
thought of one author in the language of another. 
It is a condensed statement. Its great value as a 
means of mental discipline is not sufficiently appre- 
ciated by teachers. The following are some of the 
reasons why abstract-making should be a daily 
exercise in every class sufficiently advanced to do 
the work: 

(a) The abstract is of the very essence of book- 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION ^ 65 

study. A thorough drill in its use will cure the 
pupil of the common and pernicious habit of memo- 
rizing words, when he should be looking for thought 
merely; as for example, in studying geography, 
history, or science. 

(6) For the above reason oral abstracts should 
alternate with written abstracts. The study-hour 
may be utilized to teach the. nature of an abstract, 
to distinguish it from literal reproduction, and to 
secure oral practice. Let us suppose that a reading 
lesson has been assigned in one of the middle or 
upper grades. The pupil should read a paragraph, 
and then with book open, find the principal thought 
and express it in his own language. All non-essen- 
tial and subordinate elements are left out of con- 
sideration. It is well to require the pupil to. con- 
dense an entire paragraph into one or two sentences. 

(c) This is real composition because the writer 
deals with thought and is compelled to express it 
in sentences of his own construction. It ought to 
be a rule that quotations are not accepted in this 
exercise. Excerpts are not abstracts. Unless this 
rule is strictly enforced, children will soon learn to 
pick out sentences here and there from the text, 
patch them together, and call the product an 
abstract. If this is allowed, the exercise degenerates 
into a trick of words, and the value of abstract- 
making is entirely lost. The culture is in the 
selective activity of the mind employed in findirg 
the essential thoughts, and in the constructive 
activity required for original expression. 



66 . ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

10. Elaboration.^ — This is the converse of ab- 
stract writing. The aim here is to increase in bulk 
and effectiveness what is presented in condensed 
form. There are two ways of doing such work; 
one is a process of dilution, the other of development. 
What might be called the diluting process is illus- 
trated by the foreign dispatches of the daily press. 
On account of the great expense of cabling news; 
dispatches are reduced to the smallest possible 
bulk for transmission and upon receipt they are 
put into the hands of an expert whose business is 
to expand them. The reader will have a column of 
news from Europe that was manufactured from 
three or four lines of raw material. This form of 
elaboration is not to be recommended as a school 
exei:cise. There are objections to it on both ethical 
and literary grounds. It reminds one of what 
Lowell says of Percival the poet, who "produced his 
bale of verses from a loom capable of turning off 
a hitherto unheard-of number of yards to the hour,' 
and perfectly adapted to the amplitude of our 
territory, inasmuch as it was manufactured on a 
theory of covering the largest surface with the 
least possible amount of meaning that would hold 
words together."* 

A better form of elaboration consists in developing 
a theme by differentiating and relating its parts and 
qualities. It may be the expanding of an abstract 
previously made by the pupil into its original form; 
as Franklin was in the habit of doing. It may 

♦Essay on James Gates Percival. 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 67 

consist in expanding words into phrases, phrases 
into clauses, or in embellishing plain statements 
of fact by the use of figures of speech, 

11. Types of Composition. — There are four types 
of composition: Narration, description, exposition; 
argumentation. These are usually taught in the 
order here given.* 

(a) Narration. — It is obvious that narration 
is better suited to young children than description. 
Children are naturally dynamic rather than static. 
They are not interested in the qualities of objects, 
which it is the office of description to enumerate; 
but in action and uses. Children love "stories," 
which are narrations. They do not stop long 
enough to describe an object in detail. They are 
after events. What is a thing doing? What is it 
good for? What happened to it or on account of it 
in the past? What is likely to happen in the future? 
These and similar questions arise spontaneously in 
a child's mind, and the answers to such queries 
constitute narration. 

(6) Description. — Next in order of difficulty is 
description. This involves the power of analysis. 
The order of learning is from the whole to its parts. 
When we see a thing in action we regard it as a 
unit, a thought-whole. When it becomes necessary 
to look into the causes of events, — why an animal, 
plant, or other object behaves in a certain manner, — 

*Hinsdale's Teaching the Language Arts, p. 119. (Apple- 
ton.) 



68 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

the method of procedure is to ascertain the parts 
and qualities and the nature of the materials which 
compose things. An orderly enumeration of the 
elements disclosed by such analytic study con- 
stitutes description. 

(c) Exposition.* — This type of composition com- 
bines narration and description and adds a new 
element: namely, the principles which are the 
cause of the visible qualities and actions enumerated. 
Explaining the processes' and rules of arithmetic and 
manual training is exposition. "If you tell the 
color, shape, size of a watch, you describe it. If 
you tell why the hands go round * * * you 
expound its principles. "f Oral "explanations" of 
written problems in arithmetic constitute true 
exposition. From what has been said as to the 
relative difficulty of this form of composition, it is 
evident that it is absurd to require in the lower 
grades elaborate explanations of arithmetical pro- 
cesses. 

(d) Argumentation. — A still more difficult form 
of composition is the argument. "In exposition we 
explain principles which are already established. 
* * * In argument, on the other hand, we have 
to establish the principle. Here we use explanation 
in order to prove the principle. Argument consists 
in attempting to prove. It is addressed to an 



*For a capital treatment of exposition, see Lewis's "A 
First Manual of Composition." (Macmillan, 1902), p. 227. 

tLewis: "A First Manual of Composition." 



FORMS OF COMPOSITION 69 

audience that is not satisfied of the truth of a given 
statement."* 

Argument should not be attempted before the 
last two years of the elementary school; and then 
the best way to teach it is to organize debates. f 

12. Units of Composition. — The three units of 
composition are the sentence, the paragraph, the 
essay. 

(a) Constant effort should be made in the lower 
grades to develop the power to recognize a sentence. 
Sometimes children who have advanced even to the 
upper grades of the elementary school lack this 
power. Phrases, clauses, and other fragments are 
punctuated as if they were entire sentences. The 
remedy for this singular defect is to begin early 
to teach children the recognition of complete sub- 
jects and complete predicates. 

(6) The next order of grouping in composition is 
the paragraph. The idea that the paragraph is not 
a mere combination of sentences, but a complete 
phase of a subject, should be developed early in the 
grades. Carelessness in this feature of composition 
is one of the most common faults of teachers. Edu- 
cational editors, better than any other class of per- 
sons, know the truth of this statement; for they 
receive manuscripts for publication, from teachers 
occupying even supervisory positions, v/hich ex- 
hibit every technical vice of composition. The 

*For full and excellent treatment see Lewis, p. 248. 
fSee reference to "Spellbinders," p. 48. 



70 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

paragraphing is sometimes entirely neglected, while 
in other cases every sentence is a complete para-, 
graph. If teachers themselves do not realize the 
need of accuracy in such matters, it is useless to 
expect children to acquire correct habits * 

(c) A group of words expressing a complete 
thought constitutes a sentence. A group of sen- 
tences treating a definite aspect of a subject con- 
stitutes a paragraph. An aggregation of paragraphs 
treating a subject in proper sequence, and with due 
regard to subordination and unity, constitutes an 
essay. 

An analytic study of these units should be made 
in connection with the reading lessons, and should 
precede the synthetic work of the composition 
hour. 



*See discussion of writing from topics, p. 64. 



VII. 

Choosing a Subject. 

In the choice of subjects we must be guided mainly 
by the knowledge, interests, and limitations of the 
children. 

1. Ideas. — Since the aim of this exercise is mental 
discipline through the expression of ideas, our first 
duty is to see that the child has ideas. That is, we 
must not over-emphasize the formal side of the 
work to the neglect of the thought side. Frequently 
the composition lesson is a failure, because it is an 
attempt to draw water from an empty well. Thor- 
ough familiarity with the subject-matter is a pre- 
requisite to fluency or freedom of expression. The 
monotonous repetition of the same phrases by all 
the children in a class is due to a faulty method of 
teaching, and to a paucity of information. They all 
know the same half-dozen facts; and these are remem- 
bered in stereotyped form. 

' -71 • 



72 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

2. Self-Chosen Themes. — "Self-chosen themes 
are preferable by far," says Herbart, "to those that 
are assigned, only they cannot be expected of the 
majority of the pupils."* 

As to the kind of themes children select sponta- 
neously, an interesting study has been made and 
published by Miss Calkins of Wellesley College.f 

Children in the public schools of a certain town 
were asked each to write a story on any topic what- 
ever. The subjects chosen by 137 children are 
classified as follows: 

(a) Children averaging 6^^ years of age: Personal 
possessions, 37 per cent.; personal experiences, 25 
per cent. ; experiences of others, 23 per cent. 

(6) Children 9 years of age: Personal possessions; 
21 per cent.; personal experiences, 18 per cent.; ex- 
periences of others, 24 per cent.; fairy subjects, 18 
per cent. 

(c) Children 11 years of age* Personal posses- 
sions, 4 per cent. ; personal experiences, 65 per cent. ; 
experiences of others, 11 per cent. 

(d) Children 15 years of age: Personal posses- 
sions, 3 per cent. ; personal experiences, 10 per cent. ; 
experiences of others, 70 per cent. 

Several inferences are very evident on the face of 
these returns. 

(1) In the first school year children like to talk 
about their personal possessions and experiences. 

*Outlines of Educational Doctrine, p. 124. 
fPedagogical Seminary, Vol. 3, p. 334. 



CHOOSING A SUBJECT 73 

One teacher, quoted above in the discussion of 
devices, refers to this as a fact of her own experi- 
ence. Her children like t(3 tell about "my doll," 
*'my rabbit," etc. 

(2) In about the third year of school fairy subjects 
are popular. The children of this age are the only 
ones that chose these subjects in the returns quoted. 
Fairy subjects, personal experiences, and possessions, 
furnished nearly 60 per cent, of the subjects selected 
by these third year children. 

(3) The striking feature of the eleven-year-old 
pupils is that 65 per cent, narrated personal expe- 
riences. It would seem, therefore, that in the fifth 
grade this class of subjects should predominate. 

(4) At fifteen, about the last year of the elemen- 
tary school, personal experiences have lost their 
charm, and the experiences of others constitute 70 
per cent, of the subjects. This is strictly in accord- 
ance with what we know to be true of the moral 
development of this period. The egoism of child- 
hood now gives place to the altruism of adolescence, 

3. Correlation. — Fulness of information and in- 
interest being necessary to success in composition, it 
is evident that these conditions can be met most 
economically by correlating work in composition 
with the so-called thought studies of the curriculum. 
In fact, we have already decided that composition 
is not a "subject" but a means of culture through 
the expression of ideas. Literature, nature study^ 



74 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

geography, history, and biography, together with 
the class of subjects shown above to be spontaneously 
preferred by children, will supply an abundance of 
ideas, and themes enough for all our needs. 



VIIL 

How to Be Effective. 

1. Attention to Formal Detail. — In order to be 
effective in composition, it is necessary to be care- 
ful about many things. There must be a suitable 
subject. This must be properly developed. The 
discussion must proceed in an orderly way. "You 
must not tell the point too soon, but must lead up to 
it, so that your hearer will be on tip-toe to know 
how the story is coming out. "* In addition to this 
you must think of the choice of words and the kind 
of sentences. If you choose words that the reader 
does not understand, you confuse him; if your words 
are used in the wrong sense, you mislead him; if they 
offend his taste, you disgust him. In all these things 
you must conform to good usage; and in order to 
know what good usage is you must study and 



*A First Manual of Composition. Edwin H. Lewis. 
Macmillan Co., 1902, New York. 

- - . 75 . - - ■ . • -■- 



7e ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

imitate correct models. Legibility of penmanship; 
punctuation, spelling, paragraphing, the numbering 
of pages, the margins, underscoring of words, writing 
on one side of the page, — all these things are elements 
of effectiveness in composition. • 

2. Figures of Speech. — Grammatical correctness; 
care in punctuation, and attention to the details of 
arrangement, however, are not in themselves suffi- 
cient to make discourse effective. To this end fig- 
ures of speech are essential. The use of these is a 
matter of temperament, of age, of observation and 
practice, of careful study and imitation. Perhaps 
little in this matter can be expected of young chil- 
dren. But they are constantly reading good litera- 
ture, in which figurative language prevails; and they 
unquestionably appreciate such language in their 
poems and prose stories. Nor must we make the 
mistake of supposing that only cultivated persons 
use figurative language. On the contrary, the dis- 
course of savages shows that figures- are artless and 
spontaneous. Some illiterate people are especially 
gifted in the effective use of such language. " David 
Harum" and "Old John Graham" are portrayals in 
fiction of this class of persons. Mr. William Devery, 
the former Chief of Police in New York, although he 
is said to have confessed that the police blotter is the 
only book he ever read, is one of the most effective 
phrase-makers among public men. He can hit off 
a situation or the peculiarity of a person in a few 
epigrammatic sentences whose appropriateness is 
instantly recognized by everybody. 



HOW TO BE EFFECTIVE 77 

Nor are children devoid of this power. They use 
similes, metaphors, and personifications sponta- 
neously. They dramatize their experiences in play, 
assuming many different characters. By an appeal 
to the unconscious use of figurative language we may 
establish a point of contact for the development of 
conscious power and skill in this direction.* 

It is, however, easy to overdo this matter. A 
writer who becomes too self-conscious in the use of 
figures makes himself ridiculous. The following 
paragraph describing a wedding illustrates a style 
that is too flowery: 

Would that my pen had been plucked from some beautiful 
bird of paradise and dipped in the rays of a rainbow that I 
might fittingly describe the beautiful event enacted. Just 
as the day god, clothed in majesty sublime, had withdrawn 
his galaxy of quivering, golden beams from all the earth 
and wafted a good-night kiss to blithesome young evening 
who was approaching with her cloudless brow mounted by 
a crown of jeweled stars — it was then that the cords of con- 
fidence, hope, and love, binding two tender hearts, were 
welded in bliss, indelibly traced upon the scroll of life, and 
the sacred seal of holy matrimony was then fixed. — "Bish" 
Spaulding of Muskegon. 



*A western teacher, instructing a class in composition, 
addressed her pupils as follows: "Do not attempt any flights 
of fancy; be yourselves and write what is in you." The 
next day a bright pupil handed in the following: "We 
should not attempt any flites of fancy, rite what is in you. 
In me there is my stomach, lungs, heart, liver, two apples, 
one piece of mince pie, three sticks of candy, a hull lot of 
peanuts, and my dinner." — Enid {Okla.) Eagle. 



78 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

We must, therefore, not over-stimulate the child- 
ish fancy in trying to develop a style. Pupils of the 
elementary school may be shown by the study of 
masterpieces that the difference between the litera- 
ture of power and the literature of information is due 
chiefly to the use of figurative language in the one, 
and its absence in the other. They may be allowed 
to practice the use of imagery within limits; but it 
does not seem wise to spend much time, especially in 
girls' classes, in writing verses. Such exercises tend 
to make children sentimental and self-conscious. 

3. Perspective. — Another important element of 
effectiveness in writing is perspective or proportion. 
The writer has read many hundreds of papers written 
by applicants for various kinds of teachers' licenses 
under the direction of the New York Board of Ex- 
aminers. This experience has convinced him that 
many candidates fail not for want of knowledge, but 
for want of skill in composition. They do not use 
good judgment in apportioning the time allowance. 
Frequently the writer devotes so much time to a 
discussion of one part of a question paper that he is 
obliged to pass over some of the questions without 
answering them at ail. Such people have a habit of 
multiplying words until the reader is tired, forgetting 
that after a question has received the answer called 
for, all additional or extraneous matter receives no 
credit and may invalidate the writer's claim to 
common sense, which is one of the things tested by 
the examination. 



' HOW TO BE EFFECTIVE 79 

In 1889 a certain newspaper offered a series of 
prizes for compositions to be written by public school 
children. Edward Everett Hale was a member of 
the committee selected to award the prizes. In a 
report prfnted in Book News at the time, Dr. Hale 
estimated that in a hundred of the essays submitted 
about five had a right to be; the remaining ninety- 
five were so bad that they distressed the distinguished 
reader. The criticism he made upon them was that 
they lacked what in the cant phrase of critics is 
known as "literary form." There was, in the first 
place, nothing to tell, and in the second place, no 
logical development and sequence. It was painfully 
evident that these ninety-five writers in a hundred 
wrote simply to get the prize-money, not because they 
had a story to tell. In conclusion Dr. Hale wrote 
out a formula, by way of suggestion to teachers of 
composition, from which the following is quoted : 

"I. Read carefully the story of Arnold and Andre in Ban- 
croft's History and in Gay's. Read it so often that you 
know the facts. Then put those books away. 

"2. Prepare for me a sketch of that story in two thousand 
words. 

"3. In order to do this, make a brief or skeleton of the 
things you want to speak of: Arnold's character; the position 
of West Point; the English general and his plans; the prog- 
ress of the treason; Andre's connection with it; how Wash- 
ington first knew it; how Arnold met Andre; how he learned 
he was taken; how he escaped; how Andre was tried; his 
sentence; his execution. Do not take this for your only set 
of heads but add what you think interesting. 

"4. After this brief is made, and carefully arranged, 
determine which part needs the largest treatment, and which 



80 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

can be passed over. Determine how you can give dramatic 
effect, or interest, and where this is to be attempted. Note, 
on your brief, what part shall have two pages, what part 
two lines, and so gain some proportion for your rule before 
you begin. 

"5. Of course, it would be absurd to cling literally and 
absolutely to such a scheme, but bear it in mind in writing, 
and bring me your composition, properly balanced, on such 
a plan." 



IX. 

The Correction of Compositions. 

1. Every Exercise in Composition Should Have 
Some Form of Correction. — For some years the 
teachers of New York were required to have at least 
one composition written each week and personally 
to correct one set of papers each month. The con- 
sequence was that hundreds of teachers had one set 
of compositions carefully written each month. 
These were taken home and corrected — sometimes 
practically re-written by the teacher — in red ink, 
then re-copied by the children. The three remaining 
exercises were frequently written rather carelessly 
and filed away without any correction. This was 
done in some cases merely to satisfy the letter of the 
law, which required one composition a week. 

2. Three Methods of Correction. — ^There are at 
least three good methods of correcting compositions. 

81 



82 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(a) First, the pupil may do it himself under the 
general direction of the teacher. For instance, the 
pupil's attention may be directed, first, to the 
division into paragraphs; then to sentence structure; 
then to spelling, punctuation, etc. 

(6) Or the pupil may make the corrections accord- 
ing to suggestions given by the teacher through the 
specific criticism of typical errors, or of typical 
compositions copied on the blackboard or read. 

If it be granted that the object of correction is the 
training of the pupil in the art of self-criticism, then 
it would seem to follow that he must take an active 
part in the process of correction. "Learn to do by 
doing" applies here as in everything else. The 
principle may be observed in several ways. The 
child may correct his own errors or those of another. 
If he criticises his own work, some time should elapse 
between the writing and the correction. If criticism 
is undertaken immediately, one often fails to detect 
errors which, after the lapse of two or three days, 
appear glaring. It is always easier to detect the 
errors of another than one's own. We see the m.ote 
in a brother's eye but overlook the beam in our own. 
Hence, as a rule, it is well to let children exchange 
papers. Besides, it greatly stimulates a child's 
interest to be criticised by a fellow pupil. On this 
point it has been well said that "children are singu- 
larly apathetic in regard to corrections made by the 
teacher, especially if such corrections are numerous " ; 
but "watch one of these same children when he 
receives his paper fresh from the judgment of his 



CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS 83 

peers. Is his manner indifferent? By no means. 
He is eager to discover what criticisms have been 
made by one of the rank and file Hke himself. Will 
he accept these without question? Not unless their 
justice is self-evident. He will find out whether he 
or his critic is right, and why. When the question 
is settled he has made a distinct gain. His mind has 
been alert, active, interested. Those corrections 
have made an impression which will influence him 
when he writes again."* 

In order that each child may know who corrected 
his errors, the critic may sign his name at the end of 
the paper before returning the sam.e to the owner. 
Disputed cases are brought to the teacher for settle- 
ment. The wise teacher will keep a classified list of 
her pupils in her desk. In one column are the rames 
of those who are excellent in composition. These 
receive least attention. The second column con- 
tains the names of those who are of average ability, 
while the last shows the poorest writers. These 
receive the special consideration of the teacher. She 
will probably so manage ^ the exchange of papers 
during the correction period, that papers of the best 
writers sometimes pass through the hands of the 
poorest and vice versa. 

(c) Finally, the teacher may, after applying' one 
of the preceding methods, criticise each composition 
himself. 

*The Conduct of Composition Work in Grammar Schools, 
Clapp & Huston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1902. 



84 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

The method of individual correction most in vogue 
among teachers seems to be that which requires the 
work to be done in school or at home after recitation 
hours. There are several serious objections to this 
plan. 

(1) In the first place, teachers are liable to become 
over-critical and to fall into the habit of re-writing 
compositions under such circumstances. 

(2) Furthermore, unless the compositions are 
handed back to the pupil and errors carefully ex- 
plained, such criticism is useless, and therefore a 
waste of the teacher's time and strength. 

To avoid these objections many successful teachers 
make individual corrections in the class-room during 
the composition period, and while the pupil is looking 
on. The reasons for the criticisms can then be ex- 
plained in a way that will make a vivid impression 
upon the pupil. In every instance the compositions 
should be corrected by children before they are 
handed to the teacher. In order to conduct such 
an exercise in the most economical way, the children 
should be graded according to their ability in writing, 
as already explained, so that the teacher's time may 
be given to those who need it most. 

3. Use of Helps. — For the purpose of improving 
their critical power and habit, the children should be 
allowed to consult freely, during the composition 
lesson, dictionaries, encyclopedias, grammars, or 
any other books that may be useful. 

In the matter of consulting books the onlyirule that 



CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS 85 

must be insisted on is that the pupils shall under no 
circumstances copy the exact words of another with- 
out the use of quotation marks. 

4. Do Not be Too Critical. — Remembering the 
limitations of children, we should not expect perfect 
work from them. Primary children, who have not 
learned the use of books of reference, should be en- 
couraged to ask questions on what they do not under- 
stand, as, for instance, points of fact, or of punctua- 
tion, or of spelling. When we correct errors, we 
must be careful not to see too much. It might be 
well sometimes to look for only one kind of mistakes 
in a given exercise. Thus, we might look for errors 
in paragraphing one day, for errors of punctuation 
the next, for spelling the next, and so on. Power 
may be gained, also, by laying special stress on only 
one or two points in the presentation of the subject 
matter. 

5. Exclude Technicalities While Writing. — 
One should not interrupt a child who is explaining a 
problem in arithmetic to correct his language. This 
may be done after the explanation is finished or dur- 
ing the language period. Neither should a child be 
worried by too many don'ts while he is composing. 
"In such exercises the attention should not be 
riveted upon capitals, spelling, punctuation, gram- 
matical construction, and rhetorical devices; the 
mind should be occupied solely and intensely with 
the expression of thought. Mistakes should be cor- 



88 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

rected when the pupil reviews and re-writes his 
composition."* 

6. A Code of Marks. — The object of correction 
being, not to secure a faultless product, but to train 
the critical power of the pupil, he must, if possible, 
correct his own errors. In the primary grades, and 
in the case of children speaking a foreign language, 
it may be helpful for the teacher sometimes to make 
the corrections for the pupil. But as the child grows 
older, and his skill in the application of the principles 
of composition increases, the teacher should merely 
indicate the errors in the margin, underscoring the 
parts which are wrong. To do this some code of 
marks is necessary. Many schemes have been sug- 
gested, but the majority of them are too complicated 
for young children. A code of marks that is too 
difficult defeats its own end, since it requires the 
pupil to expend too much of his mental energy in 
trying to interpret the code. The code which hap- 
pens to be before me at this moment has twenty-six 
characters. To commit all these is quite a feat of 
memory. A code should be so simple as to require 
scarcely any attention. Very often it is enough to 
show where an error lurks. This can be done by 
a cross, a line, or an interrogation point. In a great 
many instances errors are the result of carelessness 
or thoughtlessness, and a mere notice that something 
is wrong is sufficient to enable the pupil to make the 

*Thinking and Eearning to Think, Schaeflfer, Lippincott 
Co., 1901, p. 147. 



CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS 87 

correction. If the child cannot find out the nature 
of the error to which attention is called, he should 
ask the teacher for an explanation. The discussion 
that follows such a query is sure to be profitable to 
the pupil. 

It should be the rule of the class that errors which 
are clearly the result of carelessness will not even be 
pointed out by the teacher. The best way to correct 
such work is to consign it to the waste basket and 
direct the pupil to write a new composition. 



X. 

Composition Plan for an Eight-Year 
Course.^ 

General Suggestions. 

1. Models are not to be constructed by the teacher 
in grammar grades, but selected from good literature. 

2. The unity of the sentence should be a matter of 
drill in every grade after the first year. The term 
unity of sentence may be given to 5B or 6A. 

3. Points mentioned for "special attention" in a 
grade or month should be made the subjects of cor- 
rection in written work and of oral drill all through 
the month. 



*This plan was prepared under the supervision of the author and of 
District Superintendents John Dwyer and Edward W. Stitt, by Miss 
Emma C. Schoonmaker, Principal of Public School 119, Manhattan Bor- 
ough. New York, Miss Elizabeth A. Duggan, Principal of Public School 
57, Manhattan, and Miss Olive M.Jones, Principal of Public School 120. 
Manhattan. Miss Schoonmaker desires to say that she is under obliga- 
tions to Miss F. M. Tremper and Miss Mary Chalmers, two of her teachers, 
for services in preparing the plan for the seventh and eighth years. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 89 

' 4. Definitions of terms. 

(a) The term reproduction as used in this plan 
means an attempt to recall the language of the 
author, word for Vv^ord. 

(6) A paraphrase is the expression in detail of 
an author's thought in one's own language. 

(c) An abstract is a condensed^ statement; it 
seeks to give the substance of an author's thought 
in one's own language. Reproductions, if well done, 
are nearly alike. Paraphrases and abstracts, if 
honestly done, should be unlike in form, but identical 
in substance. 

(d) Elaboration or amplification is the con- 
verse of abstract writing. The aim here is to in- 
crease in bulk and effectiveness what is presented in 
condensed form. 

(e) Describe: Care should be taken not to 
misuse this word. Children in the upper grammar 
grades sometimes "describe how it happened" (nar- 
rative) or "describe how it is done or made" (exposi- 
tion) . 

This plan represents a minimum amount of work 
to be done. Teachers who can do more are well able 
to make their own plans. Special effort has been 
made not to embody in any grade work that belongs 
to a higher grade, nor to suggest anywhere work that 
properly belongs to the High School. Only those 
pieces of completed work which the teacher may be 
expected to keep until the end of the term are sug- 
gested in the plan. 



90 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

The subject matter of the composition, whether 
oral or written, whether lA or 8B, should present no 
difficulties of thought, no idea which needs explana- 
tion by the teacher. Composition lessons are not 
for the purpose of thought-getting, but for thought- 
expressing; i. e., putting into spoken or written. 
1 anguage, thought already familiar to the mind. For 
elementary school children, to whom language is 
itself an enormous difficulty, the thought or idea to 
which they give expression (in a formal composition 
lesson) should seldom be new matter of the grade, 
and, except in the higher grades, should not be 
matter which they have been left to gather for them- 
selves. 

First Year Grade. First Term (lA) . 

Note. — The success of oral composition depends 
upon the teacher's choice of the subject, as well as her 
manner of telling or reading. Care should be taken 
not to make conversations exhaustive. The child's 
interest is an index of the time that should be devoted 
to the lesson. 

Oral work should consist of Conversation and Re- 
production. In formal composition lesson the latter 
should be as nearly literal as possible. The story for 
reproduction in composition should contain no diffi- 
culty of thought. By literal reproduction children 
receive training in the use of language and in sen- 
tence structure. 

Conversations and oral reproductions should be so 
planned that once a week there will appear a lesson 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 91 

in each of the following groups: 1. Personal ex- 
perience; 2. Ethical ideas; 3. Nature study; 4. 
Reading; 5. Other lessons. 
Conversations should consist of: 

1. Statements in answer to suggestive questions. 

2. Questions from pupils to teacher and to one 
another. 

Conversation Topics: 1. Nature study of grade; 
2. Pictures; 3. Playthings; 4. Games; 5. Pets; 6. 
Outings; 7. Occupations; 8. Food; 9. Cleanliness; 
10, Manners; 11. Physical training — obeying definite 
orders, forming definite orders;* 12. Reading lessons; 
13. Number lessons (Never in teaching new point, 
and never when it interferes in slightest degree with 
child's attention to the problem to be solved, should 
special emphasis be placed upon language instruc- 
tion) . 

It is impossible to plan this grade by lessons; 
because so much depends upon seasons of year; 
neighborhood, condition of school and class. 

First Year Grade. Second Term (iB). 
Oral (only). As in lA. 
Drill on incorrect expressions. 



*In physical training exercises, instead of the teacher giving the order , 
let the child sometimes phrase it and criticise her classmates for the man- 
ner in which they obey. This gives the teacher an opportunity to make 
the child see the necessity for definite statements and for attending to 
definite statements. The same suggestion can be carried out in other 
lessons and other exercises of the day, particularly at recess times, or any 
other good occasion when class orders are necessary; as, for example, 
getting ready for assembly, distributing books, passing or collecting 
papers, taking out material from desks. 



92 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Teacher should keep from term to term Hst of 
errors most commonly made by children in lA and 
IB. At least one lesson a week in which questions 
are so formed that the child must use such expres- 
sions in his answer. Beginnings of sentence struc- 
ture. 

Second Year Grade. First Term (2A). 

I. Oral. 

1. Conversations: Subject matter as in lA. Teacher 
should definitely plan work so that some lessons will 
be devoted to describing, some to explaining, some to 
telling or narrating. 

Narration of — 

(a) Personal experiences. 
Description of — 

(a) Pets. 

(6) Playthings. 

(c) Pictures. 

(d) Objects in nature study lessons. 

Exposition of — 

(a) How to set a table (doing simple things.) 
(6) How to spin a top (playing games). 

(c) How to clean the teeth (cleanliness) . 

(d) How to pass a person (manners). 

2. Reproduction: As in lA. 
Stories should include — 

(a) Nature stories. 
(6) Folk stories, 
(c) Fairy tales. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 93 

I. Written. 

1. Pupil's own address: First month from copy 
only. Then introduce writing from memory, as soon 
as the child can undertake it. 

2. Copying sentences: Very short. -Familiar words 
only. Embody: 

(a) Facts gained from oral work. 
(6) Ethical teachings. 

(c) Facts to be memorized occasionally. 
Copying sentence is the new point of the grade. 

One exercise kept each week. One sentence only in 
each exercise. 

Second Year Grade. Second Term (2B) . 

I. Oral. 

1. Conversation: As in lA to 2A. 

2. Reproduction: As in 2A. Add to kind of stories 
to be told — 

(d) Fables. 

II. Written. 

1. Copying Sentences: As in lower grades. 

2. Dictation: One sentence only. More than one 
sentence constitutes a paragraph. (3A work.) 

3. Punctuation: Sentence dictated should contain 
no punctuation marks a rational explanation of 
which is beyond the child's comprehension. For 
this grade limit work to — 

(a) End of statement. 

(6) End of question. 

(c) End of abbreviations (in addresses) . 

(d) Word broken at end of line. 



94 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Capitals for — 

(a) First word of sentence. 

(6) First word of line of poetry. 

(c) Proper names of persons and places. 
If other marks are absolutely needed 
children should be told where and 
how to place them. 

Plan of Written Work. 

1. Copied sentence: descriptive. 

2. Copied sentence: narrative. 

3. Copied sentence : ethical. 

4. Dictated sentence: one already used 

for copy. 

5. Copied sentence explaining some- 

thing. 

6. Dictated sentence: one written from 

copy. 

7. Copied sentence: descriptive. 

8. Dictated sentence: new, not written 

before from copy. 

9. Copied sentence: nature study. 

10. Dictated sentence : narrative. 

11. Copied sentence : ethical. 

12. Dictated sentence : descriptive. 

13. Dictated sentence: reading. 

14. Dictated sentence: other lessons. 

15. Copied sentence: exposition. 

16. Dictated sentence: ethical.' 

17. Dictated sentence: description. 

18. Copied sentence; reading. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 95 

19. Dictated sentence: nature study. 

20. Dictated sentence: narrative. 

Third Year Grade. First Term (3A). 

Note. — Teacher should select paragraphs for dic- 
tation with great care. Children should study 
(never memorize, for then the exercise is not dicta- 
tion, but writing from memory) ; teacher dictates in 
such a way as to call for alertness on pupil's part. 

Each paragraph, whether copied, dictated, or 
original, should be limited to three sentences. Sub- 
ject matter should be based upon oral work, taken 
from readers, memory gems, or songs. 

I. Oral Work. 

1. Drill on incorrect expressions. See IB. 

G ve models involving use of is and are, was and 
were, has and have. Sentences not to contain more 
than about six words. Give any extra time to cor- 
rection of typical errors, as in IB. 

2. Conversations: 

(a) Statements from questions and direc- 
tions. Careful to see that each 
statement has subject and predi- 
cate. 

(6) Narration, Description, Exposition: As 
in 2A and as suggested by reading 
or other lessons of grade. Work in 
each of three kinds of composition 
every week. 



96 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

S. Reproduction: 

(a) Nature stories. 
(6) Fables. 

(c) Mj^hs. 

(d) Fairy stories. (Insist on sequence of 

events.) 

II. Written Work. 
1. Analysis of grade work: 

(a) Copied sentence — ^reviewed. ' 
(6) Dictated sentence — reviewed. 

(c) Original sentence (new to grade). 

(d) Letter — new: should include on??/ copy- 

ing of short models of friendly form. 

(e) Paragraph: copied; dictated; con- 

structed (new to grade) . 
(/) Stanza : copied ; dictated (new to grade) . 



2. Subject Matter: 
1. Narration. 




(a) Personal experiences. 
(6) Fairy stories. 

(c) Myths (historical). 

(d) Picture story (imaginative) 

(e) Story with ethical teaching. 


2. 


Description. 

(a) Nature study. 
(6) Pictures. 

(c) Playthings. 

(d) Pets. 

(e) Simple, familiar objects. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 97 

3. Exposition. 

(a) Games. 

(6) Occupations. 

(c) Manners. 

(d) Ethics. (See syllabus in Ethics.) 
Plan of Written Work. 

21. Copied sentence. 

22. Copied paragraph. 

23. Dictated sentence. 

24. Dictated paragraph. 

25. Copied letter. 

26. Dictated paragraph. 

27. Original sentence, constructed from 

question or direction. 

28. Original sentence. 

29. Copied stanza. 

30. Dictated paragraph. 

31. Original sentence, as before, or in 

effort to build model paragraph by- 
cooperation. 

32. Copied letter. 

33. Copied paragraph. 

34. Dictated paragraph. 

35. Original sentence. 

36. Original paragraph, 2 sentences only, 

constructed with teacher; strict at- 
tention to unity. 

37. Copied letter. 

38. Original paragraph, as before. 

39. Copied stanza. 

40. Original paragraph, as before. 



,98 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Third Year Grade. Second Term (3B). 

Note. — Correction of written composition should 
be made in class, teacher and children working to- 
gether. In the correction exercise, the problem 
should always be definite. See p. 21. 

Limit written work to one paragraph of not more 
than four sentences. 

Original sentences and paragraphs should be con- 
structed in class, with teacher's help and supervision. 

I. Oral Work. As in 3 A, with the addition of: 
1. Drills in correct expression: 

(a) Forms of do, see, come, go. 
' (6) Plurals of nouns. 

II. Written Work. 

1. Analysis of requirements: As in 3A, with addi- 
tion of: 

(a) Letter from dictation. 

2. Subject matter: As in 3A, with addition of: 

(a) Impersonation. 

Plan of Written Work. 

41. Copying model letter, friendly. 

42. Copied sentence, a model. 

43. Dictated sentence, same as copied 

model, or similar, 

44. Original sentences, like model. 

45. Copying model letter. 

46. Dictated letter. 

47. Copied paragraph, model. 

48. Dictated paragraph, model. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 99 

49. Original paragraph, like model 47. 

50. Copied stanza. 

51. Copied letter. 

52. Dictated letter. 

53. Copied sentence, new model. 

54. Dictated sentence, like new model in 

53. 

55. Original sentence, like new model in 

53. 

56. Dictated stanza. 

57. Copied paragraph, new model. 

58. Dictated paragraph, like new model 

in 57. 

59. Original paragraph, like new model 

in 57. 

60. Dictated letter. 

Fourth Year Grade. First Term (4A.) 

Note. — The plan of written work given here 
represents pieces of completed work required every 
week. All drafts kept until the end of the term. 

Method of Correction: See grade 3B. As a gen- 
eral rule children should correct from class instruc- 
tion. No entire compositions to be recopied, except 
when children have failed to grasp the point of the 
lesson or the exercise has been very badly done by 
the entire class. Selected portions of composition 
containing errors criticised in class, may be re- 
written. 

Written work limited to two paragraphs; contain- 
ing a maximum of about sixty words. 

LOFC. 



100 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Paragraphs should be made from topical outlines 
(constructed by teacher and class working together) 
based upon outline made of previously studied model. 
Special attention to sequence of paragraphs. 

I. Oral Work. Exercise every day. 

Subject Matter: As in grades below. Add: 
(a) Reproduction of silent reading. 

II. Written Work. 

1. Analysis of grade work: 

(a) Letters and envelopes: Informal and 
social only. 

May include school notes of var- 
ious kinds. New work of grade 
under this heading is original. 
Letters should be done by imita- 
tion of models and should include 
exercises in addressing envelopes. 
(&) Reproduction: Myths, legends, fables, 
silent reading. 

(c) Composition: New point in grade work. 

Should be done in imitation of 
models. Subject matter to be so 
chosen that three kinds of com- 
position are represented; i. e., 
narration, description, exposition. 

(d) Dictation: Also exercises in copying 

and writing from memory. Prose 
and poetry. Should illustrate rules 
for punctuation and capitals de- 
manded in this grade by syllabus. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 



101 



(e) Sentence Structure: New, as a set writ- 
ten exercise. Includes: 

(1) Drill on correct forms of ir- 
regular verbs and plurals of 
nouns. 

(2) Study of simple declarative 
sentence; the following type forms 
of statements: 

(1.) What things do. Birds catch insects. 
(2.) What is done to things. Insects are 
caught by birds. 





Plan of Work. 




Form 


Matter 


61. 


Copied letter, model. 


Friendly. 


62. 


Original letter, like 






model 61. 


Friendly. 


63. 


Reproduction. 


Myth or fable. 


64. 


Dictation. 


Poetry. 


65. 


Model composition; 






studied and copied. 


Narration. 


66. 


Original composition^ 






like model 65. 


Narration. 


67. 


Reproduction. 


Silent reading. 


68. 


Dictation. 


Prose, ethical. 


69. 


Model letter^ studied; 
then copied; dictated; 
or reproduced. 




70. 


Original letter; like 
model 69. 


Friendly. 



102 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



71. 


Sentence structure. 


First type form 
and irregular 
verbs. 


72. 


Dictation. 


Poetry. 


73. 


Model composition. 


Exposition. 


74. 


Original composi.tion; 


' 




like model 73. 


Exposition. 


75. 


Reproduction. 


Silent reading. 


76. 


Copy from print. 


Prose. 


77. 


Model letter. 


School note. 


78. 


Original letter. 


School note. 


79. 


Sentence structure. 


Second type form; 
drill on plurals. 


80. 


Dictation. 





Fourth Year Grade. Second Term (4B). 

Note. — See 4A. 

Limit work to two paragraphs, except in fifth 
month, when three may be used, aggregating about 
seventy-five words. All work called for as written 
should first be treated orally. Special attention to 
construction of outlines. 

I. Oral Work. Exercises every day. 

1. Drill on incorrect expressions. Teacher should 
keep a list of errors most commonly made by children. 
At least one lesson a week in which questions are so 
formed that the child must use such expressions in 
his answer. Special drill on forms of is, have, do, see; 
come, go. 

2. Reproduction of silent reading. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 103 

3. Composition: Similar to model studied, from 
outline, before wi'iting. 

4. Pupils to be specially drilled to recite facts of 
nature, geography, etc., in complete, connected^ 
sentences without interruption by teacher. 

II. Written Work. 

1. Analysis of grade work: 

(a) Letters and envelopes (See 4A). 

(b) Reproduction (See 4A). Add: 

(1) Historical anecdotes. 

(c) Composition. (See 4 A). 

(d) Dictation. (See 4A). 

(e) Sentence structure. (See 4A). Add': 

(1) Special attention to the four 
type forms of statements. 

1. What things do (4A). 

2. What is done to things (4A) . 

3. What the qualities of things 
are. My cat's fur is black. 

4. What things are. The 
house is a building. 

(2) Possessive forms of nouns and 
pronouns. 

(3) Use of irregular verbs. 

(4) Comparative and superlative 
forms of adjectives. 

Plan of Work. 
Form Matter 

81. Model letter, studied; 
then copied, dictated, 
or reproduced. Friendly. 



104 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



82. Original letter, like 

model 81. 

83. Reproduction. 

84. Sentence structure. 

85. Dictation. 

86. Model composition. 



87. Original composition; 

like model 86. 

88. Model letter. 

89. Original, like model 88. 

90. Dictation. 

91. Reproduction. 

92. Model composition; 

studied, outlined. 

93. Original composition; 

like model, from out- 
line. 

94. Sentence structure. 



95. Brief letter; original, like 
model shown. 



Friendly. 

Historical anec- 
dotes. 

Third type form; 
irregular verbs. 

Prose. 

Exposition; stud- 
ied, outlined. 
How to play 
some game. 

How to play some 

game. 
School note. 
School note. 
Poetry. 
Silent reading. 

Description. 



Description. 

Review of type 
forms. Com- 
parative and 
superlative de- 
grees of adjec- 
tives. 

Business. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 105 

96. Copying from print; or 

dictation. 

97. Model letter, containing 

description. Friendly. 

98. Original letter, like 

model 97. Friendly. 

99. Model composition. Narration. 
100. Original composition 

like model 99. Narration. 

Fifth Year Grade. First Term (5A). 

I. Notes AND Oral Work. 

See 4B. No technical work on principles of para- 
graphing to be taken below 6A. 

II. Written Work. 

1. Analysis of grade work: 

(a) Letters and envelopes. (See 4 A). 
(&) Reproduction. (See 4B) . 

(c) Composition. (See 4B) . Special at- 
tention to class-room correction; seepage 81. 
Three paragraphs at most, probably two. 

(d) Invention exercises: Limited in length. 
* 1. Expand short story. 

2. Tell story suggested by picture. 

3. Relate im^aginary autobiography. 

(e) Dictation. (See 4 A). 

(/) Sentence structure: All the type forms. 
Longer and more difficult; Apply in 
correction of written work. 

2. Pupils should be trained to correct their own 
compositions. 



106 



ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



102. 



103. 



104. 
105. 



106. 



Plan of Work. 
Form 



101. Model letter. 



Matter 
Careful attention 
to important de- 
tails of struc- 
ture; e. g., head- 
ing, salutation; 
body (p a r a- 
graphs), conclu- 
sion, signature; 
and superscrip- 
tion on the en- 
velope. 
Special attention 
to parts of letter. 
Expand short 
story. 
Suggestion. — From picture, reading les- 
son, stanza of poetry. 



Original letter, like 

model 101. 
Invention 



exercise. 



Dictation. 
Model composition; 
studied, outlined 



Original composition; 
like model 105. 



107. Invention. 



Poetry. 

Description of 
object, scene, or 
picture. 
Description of ob- 
ject, scene, or 
picture. 
Tell story suggest- 
ed by picture. 
Proceed as follows: Short anonymous 
composition. Teacher write one. All 
put in receptacle. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 107 

108. Invention. (107). Correction of lead- 

ing errors in pre- 
ceding exercise. 
Suggestion. — ^Each child draw story from 
receptacle. Work of grade in sentence 
structure should be applied and drilled. 

109. Dictation. Poetry. 

110. Model composition. Exposition. 

111. Original, Hke model 110. Exposition. 

112. Invention. Class motto; or 

other quotation 
or proverb. 
Suggestion. — ^Have an abundance of oral 
work, then condense and classify state- 
ments made by children. 

113. Model letter. Informal note of 

invitation. 

114. Original letter, like Informal note of 

model 113. invitation. 

115. Invention. 

Children to tell in oral work, some item of 
interest, something done, som.e anec- 
dote, etc. Child come to class with 

- slip of paper on which is written topic 
on which she is to talk. After talking; 
write. Teacher hear a number read; 
then collect papers. Later each pupil 
write on any subject he has liked par- 
ticularly. ' 

116. Reproduction. Historical anec- 

dote. 



108 



ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



117. 


Dictation. 


Stanza written 
from memory 
or dictation. 


118. 


Model composition. 


Narration. 


119. 


Original, like model 113 


Narration. 


120. 


Original letter, like 






model shown. 


Business. 



Fifth Year Grade. Second Term (5B). 

Note. — Work identical with 5A; except sentence 
structure, which now becomes grammar and should 
be separately planned and have separate time allotted 
to it. Grammar is therefore left out of consideration 
in planning composition work of this grade. It 
should, however, be applied in every correction 
exercise. 

But one lesson has been planned for each week; 
this allows ample time for correction of errors in 
second lesson of week, and for oral composition. 

Plan of Work. 
Form Matter 

121. Model letter. Informal note. 

122. Original, like model 121 Informal note. 

123. Invention. Imaginative auto- 

biography: 
acorn, rose, f emj 
etc. 

124. Dictation. Prose. 

125. Model composition. Exposition. 

126. Original composition; Exposition. 

like model 125. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 



109 



127. Reproduction. 

128. Dictation. 

129. Invention. 



130. Model letter 

131. Letter, like model 130. 

132. Reproduction. 

133. Model composition. 

134. Composition, like model 

133. 



135. Dictation. 

136. Invention. 

137. Model letter. 



Historical anec- 
dote. 

Poetry. 

Story suggested 
by picture; same 
picture for all, 
but individual 
copies, if small. 
(See geogra- 
phies, histories, 
and readers). 

Informal note. 

Informal note. 

Short story from 
reader. 

Description of per- 
son. 

Description of 
familiar person; 
not principal or 
class teacher. 
Do not name. 
See if children 
can give nam.e. 

Prose, or writing 
stanza from 
memory. 

Expand short 
story. 

Friendly, contain- 
ing description. 



110 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

138. Letter, like model 137. Friendly, contain- 

ing description. 

139. Dictation. Poetry. 

140. Reproduction. Short story from 

reader. 

Sixth Year Grade. First Term (6A) . 

Note. — Read carefully notes of all preceding 
grades. 

Utmost limit of any one piece of work three para- 
graphs. 

I. Oral Work. 
As in preceding grades. See 4B. Add: 
(a) Reports. 

(1) News items. 

(2) Library books. 

(3) Excursions. 

IL Written Work. 

1. Analysis of grade work. 

(a) As in preceding grades. See 5A. Add ; 
(6) Principles of paragraphing. 

(1) Unity; i. e., one topic for each 
paragraph. 

(2) Topic sentence; i. e., first sen- 
tence of each paragraph should 
name or indicate topic. 

Plan of Work. 
Form Matter 

141. Model letter, dictated. School note. 

142. Letter, like model 141. School note. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 



111 



143. Invention. - Picture study. See 

5B, No. 129. 
To explain meaning of picture is really 
exposition; story suggested by picture 
is narration. 



144. 



145. 



Reproduction. 
Model composition. 



146. 



Historical anec- 
dote (American). 
Exposition : How 
to make some- 
thing. 
Study paragraph structure as class makes 
outline. 
Composition, like model 145. 



147. Invention. 



148. Dictation. 



149. Model letter. 

150. Letter, like model 149. 

151. Invention. 



152. Dialogue: model studied, 
quotation marks. 



153. Dialogue, like model 152. 

154. Business letter, after 

model given. 



Imaginative auto- 
biography. 

Stanza, or written 
from memory. 

Friendly request. 

Friendly request. 

Class motto, or 
other proverb. 

See 5A, No. 112. 

Mountain and the 

Squirrel. 

Cricket and the 

. Ant. 



112 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

155. Model composition. Historical narra- 

tive that in- 
volves a dia- 
logue. 

156. Composition, like model Historical narra- 

155. tive that in- 

volves a dia- 
logue. 

157. Dictation. Poetry. 

158. Invention. Expand into story 

or description g 
^'We heard the 
bells." 
Bells of all kinds can be talked of. 

159. Model composition. Description. 

160. Composition, like model Description. 

159. 

Sixth Year Grade. Second Term (6B). 

First Month 
Special attention to be given to — 
(a) Unity of paragraph, 
(6) Topic sentence. 
Unity of sentence should be well drilled and re- 
viewed. (See work in previous grades.) 

Plan of Work 

161. Study and outline of model : oral work. De- 
scription of a person; common types; as; 
conductor, policeman, shop-girl, stenograph- 
er, etc. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 113 

1. Appearance. 

2. Dress. 

3. Personality. (Favorable). (Unfavorable). 

4. Seen frequently. 

162. Composition, like model: written. 

163. (1) Study and outline of model letter. 
(2) Letter like model. 

164. Invention: similar to methods explained in 
6 A. Let it involve description. 

Second Month 
Special attention: 

(a) Unity of paragraph. 

(6) Complete statements. 

(c) Choice of verbs. 

id) Possessive forms: when to use. 

Plan of Work 

165. Invention: diary of a day, f A. M. to 8 P. M. 

Drill on use of synonyms — ^verbs. 

166. Invention: dialogues. Conversation be- 

tween two inanimate objects — something 
new and something old. 
. 167. Study of principles of paragraph. Separate 
paragraphs written on given topics. Object: 
unity of paragraph and topic sentence. 
168. Biography of class author: narration. Model 
studied; one like model written. 

Third Month 
Special attention: 

(a) Use of "one" (in exposition) rather 
than i'you." 



114 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(b) Modifiers to be placed as near as pos- 

sible to the word modified. 

(c) Principles of paragraphing, as before. 

Plan of Work 

169. Exposition: directions for reaching any 

given locality or place, as the Aquarium, 
Bronx Park, Brooklyn. Model studied and 
outlined: oral. 

170. Exposition: written, like model 169. 

171. Model letter: invitation and acceptance or 

regret; informal note. 

172. Letter, like model 171. 

Fourth Month 
Special attention: 

(a) Unity of paragraph. 

(6) Choice of words. 

(c) General vs. specific statements. 

Plan of Work 

173. Model studied: description of visit. - 

174. Letter like model. Child to tell what he saw. 

Specific statements. 

175. Memory selection, either prose or poetry;' 

studied as model is studied, and outlined. 

176. Paraphrase of memory selection written. 

Fifth Month 
Special attention: 

(a) Topic sentence. 
(6) Choice of words. 

(c) Pronouns: personal and relative; an- 
tecedents. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 115 

Plan of Work 

177. Study of sentence : topic sentence and careful 

drill on unity of sentence. Change general 
to specific statements. News items will 
form good subject matter. 

178. Model description: studied and outlined. 

Description of picture. 

179. Description : written,in imitation of model 178. 

June — ^Take a landscape. 
January — "The Chimes," by Blashfield, 
or other seasonable picture. 

180. Report: definite statements in answer to 

suggestive questions. Library books form 
good subject matter. 

Seventh Year Grade. First Term (7A). 

Notes. — ^Report on home reading should be made 
orally, and should include accounts of current 
events gathered from newspapers or magazines. 

Make narrative composition the special point of 
grade in kinds of composition. 

The point for special attention in each month should 
be drilled in the correction exercises and in oral work. 

Course of study may call for two lessons per week 
in composition. The present plan provides for 
work for one lesson, thus leaving plenty of time for 
correction, etc. 

First Month 

Special attention: 

(a) Unity of sentence. 
(6) Unity of paragraph. 



116 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Plan of Work 

181. Model: exposition. 

182. Exercises like model 181. 

183. Model: letter. 

184. Exercises like 183. 

Second Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Structure of sentence. 

1. Position of modifiers. 

2. Pronouns must have antecedents. 
(6) Unity of paragraph. 

Plan of Work. 

185. Model: description. 

186. Exercises like model 185. 

187. Model: narration. 

188. Exercises like model 187. 

Third Month 
Special attention: 

(a) Topic sentence. 

(6) Variety of beginning sentence, from 
study of model sentence. 

Plan of Work. 

189. Model: letter. 

190. Exercises like model 189. 

191. Model: narration, dialogue. 

192. Exercises like model 191. 

Fourth Month. 
Special attention. 

(a) Words — general and specific. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 117 

(6) Statements — general and specific, 
(c) Variety of beginning sentence, especially 
for use as topic sentence. 

Plan of Work. 

193. Model: description. 

194. Exercises like model 193. 

195. Model: narration. 

196. Exercises like model 195. 

Fifth Month. 
Special attention: 

Same points as in previous months 
with special attention to weak- 
nesses of class. 

Plan of Work. 

197. Model letter. 

198. Exercises like model 197. 

199. Study of paragraphing. 

200. Letter: describe "Departmental System;" 
assembly exercises, or other feature of school work. 

Seventh Year Grade. Second Term (7B). 

Note. — See 7 A. Make descriptive composition 
the object of special drill. 

First Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Unity of paragraph. 

(&) Topic sentence. 

(c) Variety in beginning sentences. 



118 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Plan of Work. 

201. Model: exposition. 

202. Exercises like model 201. 

203. Model: business letter. 

204. Exercises like model : application for em- 
ployment. 

Second Month. 
Special attention: 

As in first month. Add: 

(d) Choice of verbs. 

(e) Tense of verbs. 

Plan of Work. 

205. Model: description. 

206. Exercises like model 205. 

207. Model: letter. 

208. Exercises like model 207. 

Third Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Sentence structure. 

1. Position of modifiers. 

2. Agreement of tenses. 

3. Pronouns and their antecedents. 

Plan of Work. 

209. Model: description. 

210. Exercises like model 209. 

211. Model: business letter. 

212. Exercises like model 211. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 119 

Fourth Month. 
' Special attention: 

(a) Specific and general statements. 

(b) Specific and general words. 

(c) Choice of words, particularly verbs. 

(d) Principles of paragraphing. 

Plan of Work. 

213. Model: description. 

214. Exercises like model 213. 

215. Model studied, and one exercise like model; 
narration. 

216. Model letter and one exercise like model. 

Fifth Month. 
. Special attention: 

See fifth month of 7A. 

Plan of Work. 

217. Model: description. 

218. Exercises like model 217. 

219. Model: exposition. 

220. Exercises like model, or business letter in 
imitation of previously studied model. 

Eighth Year Grade. First Term (8A.) 

Note. — The course of study may call for reports 
on home reading as part of the written work. These 
reports should include reading of library books; 
magazines, newspapers, etc. For isolated para- 
graphs in several subjects no better subject matter 
can be found. Instead of making reports in the 
form of an entire composition, let the report be a 



120 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

paragraph. When the teacher is teaching topic 
sentences, let her give the topic on which the child 
is to report; for example, reasons for liking or dis- 
liking the book, or opinions on the characters men- 
tioned in the book. 

First Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Clearness. 

(&) Unity: sentence and paragraph. 
(c) Choice of words. 
Write isolated paragraphs on several subjects. 
For the sake of drill always begin paragraph with 
topic sentence. Use of semicolons to separate 
members of a compound sentence. 

Plan of Work. 

221. Study of paragraph' topic sentence (see 
note on reports) . Model paragraph written through 
cooperation of teacher and pupils. Pupils compare 
one or two other paragraphs similar to model. 

222. Model: description. 

223. Exercises like model 222. 

224. Model: letter. Exercises like model. 

Second Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Words: verbs and adjectives particu- 
larly. 

1. Long or short. 

2. General or specific. 

3. Tenses of verbs. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 121 

(6) Sentence. 

1. Variety of beginning, 
(c) Paragraph. 

1. Unity. 

2. Topic sentences. 

Plan of Work. 

225. Exposition : review models of previous 
grades. 

226. Exercises like model: 

1. Class motto. 

2. Science experiment. 

3. Hygiene. 

4. Good habits. 

5. What I should like to do. 

6. What I should like to be. 

227. Business letter. 

228. Order for books, magazines, dry goods; 
etc., written in imitation of model. 

Third Month. 
Special attention: 

As in previous month. Add: 

(3) Plan of paragraph. 

(4) Study of description as type of 
composition. 

Plan of Work. 

229. Model: description. 

230. Exercises like model 229. 

231. Invention: dialogue (see previous grades). 



122 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

232. Note for absence with request for lessons 
and specific directions for sending said lessons. 
Stamp enclosed, if answer by mail is desired. 

Fourth Month. 
Special attention: 

As before. 

Plan of Work. 

233. Description : composition from outline 
made in class describing some place, building, object; 
or room, familiar to the entire class. 

234. Continuation of 233. 

235. Letter: without model, from outline con- 
structed in class. 

236. Same continued. 

Fifth Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Principles of paragraphing. 

Plan of Work. 

237. Narration: model. 

238. Exercises like model 237. 

239. Description: from outline made in class. 

1. Character sketch; or 

2. Pen pictures from nature (illus- 

trated) . 

240. Same continued. 

Eighth Year Grade. Second Term (8B). 
First Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) Thorough study of paragraphing. 



EIGH-TYEAR COURSE 123 

(6) Such points of sentence structure as 
have been taken in lower grades. 

Plan of Work. 

241. News items condensed: for study of topic 
sentence. 

242. Familiar letter: narration of particulars 
regarding new class, studies, school, etc. Review 
•important details of structure; e. g., heading, saluta- 
tion, body (paragraphs), conclusion, signature, and 
superscription on the envelope. 

243. Description : outline constructed in class. 
Suggested subjects — 

1. Picture study. 

2. Present fashions. 

3. Landscape. 

244. Same continued. 

Second Month. 
Special attention: 

(a) During the first month teachers should 
keep list of typical errors in sentence structure and 
paragraphing. Drill on this list during second 
month. 

(6) Study of narration as type of com- 
position. 

Plan op Work. 

245. Narration: model. 

246. Exercises like model 245. 

247. Business letter; application. 

248. Invention: narration — complete a story. 



124 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Third Month. 
Special attention: 

As in previous months. 

Plan of Work. 

249. Book report : answers to definite questions 
and paraphrase of some narrative portion of library 
book. 

250. Five minute composition. 

251. Business letter : order; explain reason for 
putting name and address of writer on envelope. 

252. News items, condensed, or used as subject 
matter for composition. 

Fourth Month. 
Special attention: 

The object of this month's work should be 
a thorough review and drill in all points 
taught in this or previous grades. 

Plan of Work. 

253. Report on home reading. ■ 

Narration (invention) ; story or incident for 
national event or holiday. Outline con- 
structed in class. 
254. Argument (debate); no technical teaching. 
Suggested topics: 

Roundheads vs. Cavaliers. 
Dutch vs. English. 
Washington vs. Lincoln. 
Spring vs. Autumn. 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 125 

Summer vs. Winter. 

Peace vs. War. 

Pen vs. Sword. 

Some topic from current events. 

255. Same continued. 

256. Business letter: application for employment 
in reply to advertisement. 

Fifth Month. 
Special attention: 
As before. 

Plan of Work. 

257. Exposition: study as type of composition. 

258. Same continued. 

259. Abstract : some portion of appreciative 
reading or of memory gem. 

260. Letter : drill on different forms of salutation 
and modes of addressing people in various positions 
in life. 



126 



ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



SUMMARY OF THE NEW STEPS ASSIGNED FOR THE 
VARIOUS GRADES. 



1 A 


ORAL 

(a) Conversation on top- 
ics of — 

(1) Nature study 

(2) Simple pictures 

(3) Children's games 
and pets 

(4) Children's outings 
and occupations 

(5) Food, cleanliness, 
etc. 

(6) Reproduction of 
simple stories 


WRITTEN 
None required 


IB 


As above 


None required 


2A 


(a) Explain how simple 
things are done; spin a 
top, set a table, etc. 

(b) Reproduction of — 

(1) Nature stories 

(2) Folk stories 

(3) Fairy tales 


Short sentences from copy 
(Use only familiar words) 


2B 


As above, but add the 
simplest fables 


Sentences from dictation 
(Keep the work interest- 
ing and instructive) 


3A 


Reproduction to include 
nature stories, fables, 
and myths; also stories 
the pupil has read. De- 
scription of simple ob- 
jects 

Explanation of simple pro- 
cesses 


(1) Paragraphs and stanzas 
(a) from copy 

(6) from dictation 

(2) Pupils to construct 
statements from ques- 
tions or directions 

(3) Teachers and pupils to- 
gether to form para- 
graphs 


3B 


As above 


Short model letters — 

(a) from copy 

(b) from dictation 



EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 



127 



SUMMARY OF THE NEW STEPS ASSIGNED FOR THE 
VARIOUS GRADES.— Continued. 



4A 


ORAL 

Reproduction to include 
myths and legends 


WRITTEN 

(1) Reproduce subject mat- 
ter of their silent reading 

(2) Model composition 
studied and imitated 

(3) Letter writing, includ- 
ing addressing of envel- 
opes 

(4) Copy from print (prose 
and poetry) 


4B 


(1) Reproduction of his- 
torical anecdotes 

(2). Teacher to construct 
outlines in cooperation 
with pupils, from which 
the pupils compose 


(1) Reproduction of histor- 
ical anecdotes 

(2) Follow the given out- 
lines, and construct orig- 
inal matter 


5A 


Simple exercises in narra- 
tion 

(1) Expansion of short 
stories 

(2) Stories from pictures 

(3) Imaginary autobi- 
ographies 


(1) Short simple narrations 

(2) Description of objects, 
scenes, and pictures 

(3) Explanation of simple 
occupations or processes 

(Special attention to 
plan of model) 
Train pupils to correct their' 
own compositions 


5B 


As above 

Drill on correct forms 


As above 

Drill on correct forms 


6A 


Reports on matters of in- 
terest 

(1) Keep to the subject 

(2) Talk clearly and 
coherently 


Description of objects,^ 
scenes, and pictures to be 

(a) Studied 

(b) Reproduced 

(c) Imitated 
Principles of paragraphing 

to be studied 


6B 


Reproduction: Lessons in 
geography, history, civ- 
ics, and reading 


Reproduction: Lessons in 
geography, history, civ- 
ics, and reading 



128 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



SUMMARY OF THE NEW STEPS ASSIGNED FOR THE 
VARIOUS GHABES.— Continued. 



7A 


ORAL 

Reports on home reading 
and current events 


WRITTEN 

Study on specimens of narra- 
tion, description, exposi- 
tion, and familiar letters 

(a) Construct outlines 

(b) Reproduce selections 

(c) Imitate selections 


7B 


As above 


Social and business corres-. 
pondence (Confined to 
useful forms) 


8A 


As above 


(1) Study of single and re- 
lated paragraphs 

(2) (a) Write similar para- 
graphs from topics 

(6) Composition from 

outlines 
(c) Reports on home 

reading 


8B 


As above 


As above 

Write similar compositions 
from outlines 



XL 

Graded Work in Dictation. 

Introdtjction. 

The following exercises for dictation were prepared hy 
Miss Julia Richman, District Superintendent, New York, 
and were originally published in School Work.* They are 
inserted here with the permission of Miss Richman and the 
editors of School Work. In her introduction Miss Richman 
makes the following acknowledgment of assistance received: 

"The selections appended to this article were chosen by 
teachers in the following schools, whose principals cheerfully 
cooperated with me in securing proper material, 

Manhattan: 

P. S. 33, (Girls) Miss Alida S. Williams. 
P. S. 44, Mr. William A. Boylan. 
P. S. 77, Miss Matilda B, Lemlein. 
P. S. 105, Miss Carrie Wallace Kearns. 
P. S. 159, Miss Emma A. Johnson. 
P. S. 168, Miss Cecilia A. Francis. 
P. S. 168, Miss Millicent Baum. 



*70 Fifth Avenue, New York. 
129 



130 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Brooklyn: 

P. S. 140, Miss Emma L. Johnston 
The Bronx: 

P. S. 33, Mr. H. Newman. 

"In addition to the selections, I am indebted for two 
most valuable suggestions to Miss Johnston, of Brooklyn, 
and for one to Miss Williams, which suggestions I take the 
liberty of printing just as they were jotted down in personal 
notes to me. 

"1. The sentences for the lower grades are taken from 
poems memorized in grades below. They are, consequently, 
half-forgotten lines which the children will be glad to hear 
again, for they are old friends. 

"2. The proverbs are such as can be presented literally. 
Since the children should not be expected, in the beginning, 
to see a double meaning in a proverb, this is, perhaps, im- 
portant. Again, the proverbs call up pleasing pictures. 

"3. In 8A and 8B, we put special emphasis upon business 
expression, commercial terms, etc. In all the grades, certain 
ethical values are insisted upon — the dictation exercise 
serves as a text for a little preachment, as per course of study. 
I do not believe in cold-blooded (as it were)-lessons in ethics. 
That is a matter of example, and of the 'line upon line and 
precept upon precept.' 

"To Miss Kearns I am indebted for the suggestion of 
having children in the third year write from copy or dictation 
each week a paragraph connected with the nature study of 
the grade, the written sheets being made into a booklet 
whose cover bears a nature design, designed and painted 
by the child. The children take much pleasure in preparing 
to make the booklets, and much pride in their completion. 

"The selections which follow are merely suggestive. Any 
really good teacher can make selections quite as suitable; 
but until all of our teachers are 'really go.od,' it may be 
helpful to find a choice of good selections close at hand. If 
this collection proves helpful to any teacher it has fulfilled 
its mission." 



WORK IN DICTATION 131 

The selections given are classified under two groups, as 
follows: 

First Group. 

Classified to show the purpose and points for study: Grades 
2A to 5B inclusive. 

Second Group. 

General selections for all the grades, classified only according 
to grade, not according to content or to progression in difficulty. 
These selections have been chosen by teachers in different parts 
of the city. No attention has been paid to the order in which 
they appear in this list. 

Under each grade the two groups will be distinguished by 
the Roman numerals. 

GRADE 2A. 
I. 

Copy only. 

Purpose — For spelling and arrangement. 
Points for study — Capital at beginning, period at end of 
sentence. 

(1) Our school is a pleasant place. 
Purpose — Ethical. 

Point for study — Question mark. 

(2) Do I love my neighbor? 

II 

(3) Keep the door of my lips. — Psalm 141. 

(4) Blessed be the Lord. — Psalm 68. 

(5) "We love our flag. 

(6) The March winds are blowing. 

(7) I am old, so old, I can write a letter. — Ingelow. 

(8) A penny saved is a penny earned. — Franklin. 

(9) I saw you toss the kites on high. — Stevenson. 

(10) Snow is soft and white. 

(11) A spider can spin a web. 

(12) Always speak the truth. 

(13) God bless our home. 



132 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 
GRADE 2B. 



Purpose — Correlation with nature study. 
Points for study — Spelling; punctuation; Capital for 
proper name; question mark {reviewed). 

(14) Who heard Jack Frost last night? 
Purpose — Ethical. 

Points for study — Spelling, punctuation: Capital for I. 

(15) Surely I must do my best if I wish to succeed. 
Purpose — Literary. 

Points for study — Punctuation: Capital 0; wonder mark. 

(16) Give me of your bark, birch tree! 

II. 

(17) Forgive and forget. 

(18) The first spring month is March. 

(19) Even a child is known by his doings. 

(20) Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy 
might. 

(21) From every mountain side 

Let freedom ring. — S. F. Smith. 

(22) The time of the singing of birds is come. — Bible. 

GRADE 3A. 

I. 

Pup.POSE — Correlation with nature lesson. 
Points for study" — Spelling, punctuation: Capital for 
names of months. 

(23) February gives us a hint of spring, and even stormy 
March has some pleasant days. 

Purpose — Ethical. 

Points for study — Arrangement of lines of poetry; use 
of comma. 

(24) If you want to be happy and gay, 
Do a kind deed every day. 

Purpose — Literary. 

Point for study — Paragraph form; two sentences. 



WORK IN DICTATION 133 

(25) A good name is better than riches. Loving faVor 
is better than silver and gold. 

11. 

(26) The wind likes to play with the milkweed seeds. 

(27) I am a grasshopper. My wings are green and brown. 

(28) Children should come to school with clean faces and 
hands. 

(29) In October the leaves turn yellow and red. 

(30) The acorn is the fruit of the oak tree. 

(31) Ducks have big yellow bills and their toes are joined 
by a thin web. They like to swim in the pond. 

(32) My kitten uses her tongue for a comb and brush. 
Her coat is always clean and smooth. 

(33) Be loving and you will never want for love. 

(34) Be good, sweet maid. — Kingsley. 

(35) I will fear no evil. — Psalms 23. 

(36) Our thoughts are heard in heaven. — Young. 

(37) Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. — Long- 
fellow. 

(38) Dollies peep out of those wee little dreams. — Eugene 
Field. 

(39) The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall not want.— PsaZm 
23. 

(40) Speak ye every man the truth to his neighbor. — 
Zech. 8. 

(41) If we love one another, God dwelleth in us. — John 4. 

(42) East or west, home is best. 

(43) Oh, there is a little artist 

Who paints in the cold night hours, 
Pictures for wee, wee children 
Of wondrous trees and flowers. 

(44) Kind hearts are the gardens; 

Kind thoughts are the roots; 
Kind words are the flowers; 
Kind deeds are the fruits. 

(45) Be not simply good, be good for something. 



134 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 
GRADE 3B. 



Purpose — Correlation with nature lesson. 
Points for study — Spelling, punctuation; proper use of 
of Mr. and Mrs.; paragraph arrangement. 

(46) Mr. and Mrs. Robin will soon be here. They are 
among our earliest spring visitors. 

Purpose — Ethical. 

Point for study — Arrangement of poetry. 

(47) Love the beautiful, 
Seek the true, 
Wish for the good, 
And the best do. 

Purpose — Literary. 

Point for study — Use of apostrophe for omitted letters, 

(48) The year's at the spring 
And day's at the morn; 
God's in His heaven. 
All's right with the world. 

II. 

(49) If a task is once begun. 
Never leave it till it's done. 
Be the labor great or small. 

Do it well, or not at all. — Phoebe Cdry. 

(50) Beautiful faces are those that wear 
The light of a pleasant spirit there; 
It matters little if dark or fair. 

(51) One man walks through life with his eyes open, 
another with his eyes shut. The one enjoys life, and learns 
something new every day; the t)ther cares nothing for the 
wonderful and beautiful things that are around him, but 
which he never sees. 

(52) Tell me, sunny golden-rod. 

Growing everywhere. 
Did fairies come from fairyland, 
And make the dress you wear? 



WORK IN DICTATION 135 

(53) The Indians were the first people that lived on 
Manhattan Island. The Dutch came after them; then 
came the English. 

(54) Words tell what you should be; 
Deeds what you are. 

(55) The shortest way to do things is to do only one 
thing at a time. 

(56) Good, better, best, 
Never let it rest. 

Till your good is better, 
And your better, best. 

(57) There are three months in each season. December, 
January, and February are the winter months. 

(58) Mother Nature has given to each animal the tools 
which it needs most. Some use their tools in building nests 
and houses. Man has hands with which he makes tools 
for himself. 

(59) There are little drops of water in the air, "although we 
Cannot see them. These drops are so small that they are 
Sometimes called water dust. Have you ever seen Jack 
Frost turn these water drops into little white snowflakes? 

(60) Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 
Do noble things, not dream them all day long. 

(61) We should make the same use of books that the bee does 
of a flower. He gathers sweets from it but does not injure it. 

(62) Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. 

(63) The Lord is my shepherd. I shall not want. He 
maketh me to lie down in green pastures. He leadeth me 
beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul. 

(64) Let us do our work as well. 

Both the unseen and the seen, 
Make the house where gods may dwell 
Beautiful, entire, and clean. 

(65) Never put oflf till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 

(66) He only is rich who owns the day. Write it on your 
heart that every day is the best day in the year. 



136 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(67) The rich and poor meet together. The Lord is the 
maker, of them all. 

(68) Beautiful trees and woods so green, 
Beautiful buds and flowers seen, 
Beautiful every little blade, 
Beautiful all that God has made. 

(69) Do you want to be happy and gay, little maid? 
Do you want to be happy and gay? 

Then do a kind deed every day, little maid. 
Yes, do a kind deed every day. 

GRADE 4A. 
1. 

Purpose — Correlation with nature study. 
Points for study — Spelling, punctuation: unbroken quo- 
tation. Review paragraph arrangement and apostrophe. 

(70) This morning we fed our frog with bits of meat. 
How quickly his tongue darted out! Alex said, "It's a 
good thing there are no insects about. I can see now why 
the farmer thinks the frog, is his friend." 

Purpose — Ethical. 

Points for study — Paragraph arrangement, punctuation: 
use of comma in series. 

(71) How much we have with which we may be generous 1 
A smile, a kind word, a helping hand are ours to give freely 
to others. It is not necessary to have money to be generous^ 

Purpose — Literary value. 

Points for study — Arrangement and capitals of long lines 
in poetry, spelling. 

(72) He prayeth best who loveth best 

All things both great and small; 
For the dear God who loveth us, 
He made and loveth all. 
For punctuation and spelling: 

QUESTION MARK. 

(73) Where did the cunning spider build his home? Was 
It on the kitchen wall? Did the tidy maid brush the web 
awayf What did the patient spider do then? 



WORK IN DICTATION 137 

DATE, PROPER NAMES, ABBREVIATION. 

(74) Mr. Longfellow was born Feb. 27, 1807. His youth 
vas passed in Portland. He wrote a great many* poems for 
children. He also wrote some Indian stories. 

CONTRACTIONS. 

(75) It's very cold to-day. I'll take your bonnet to my 
room. What's the matter with your hands? You shouldn't 
10 without gloves. Where's your muflf? 

UNBROKEN QUOTATION. 

(76) A fair little girl sat under a tree, 
Sewing as long as her eyes could see. 
Then smoothed her work, and folded it right, 
And said, "Dear work, good night, good night." 

Note. — All commas dictated. 

QUESTION MARK AND PERIOD. 

(77) Who has seen the wind? 
Neither you nor I. 

But when the trees bow down their heads. 
The wind is passing by. — Rosetti. 

CONTRACTIONS. 

(78) 'Tis the star-spangled banner: 

Oh, long may it wave. 
O'er the land of the free 

And the home of the brave. — Keyes. 

PROPER NAMES. 

(79) From my study I see in the lamplight. 
Descending the broad hall stair. 
Grave Alice and laughing Allegra, 

And Edith with golden hair. — Longfellow. 

QUESTION MARK AND QUOTATION. 

(80) What does little baby say, 
In her bed at peep of day? 
Baby says, like little birdie, 

"Let me rise and fly away." — Tennyson. 



138 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

TWO QUOTATIONS. 

(81) Over in the meadow 
Where the stream runs blue 
Lived an old mother fish 
And her little fishes two. 
"Swim," said the mother. 
"We swim," said the two. 

So they swam and they leaped 
Where the stream runs blue. 

(82) What we must do, let us love to do. 
We find in life exactly what we put into it. 

In winter I get up at night 
And dress by yellow candle-light; 
In summer, quite the other way, 
I have to go to bed by day. 

— Robert L. Stevenson. 

(83) Between the dark and the daylight. 

When the night is beginning to lower, 

Comes a pause in the day's occupations 

That is known as the children's hour. 

— Henry W. Longfellow. 

(84) Henry W. Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine. 
He was born February 27, 1807. Mr. Longfellow wrote 
many beautiful poems. 

(85) There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree; 
. He's singing to me! he's singing to me. 

And what does he sing, little girl, little boy? 

(86) What is this little green tip peeping up out of the 
ground? It is a young snowdrop plant. Can you tell me 
why it grows? Where does it find its food? 

(87) The fox tried in different ways to reach the grapes, 
but all in vain. At last he turned away, saying, "The 
grapes are sour and not ripe as I thought." 

(Occasionally in connection with nature study something on 
this order.) 

(88) The four young oysters hurried up, 

All eager for the treat; 



WORK IN DICTATION 139 

Their coats were brushed, their faces washed. 

Their shoes were clean and neat. 
And this was odd, because you know 

They hadn't any feet. — Lewis Carroll. 

(89) I met a little cottage girl: 

She was eight years old, she said. 
Her hair was thick with many a curl 

That clustered round her head. 
"Sisters and brothers, little maid, 

How many may you be? " 
"How many? Seven in all," she said. 

And wondering looked at me. 

— Wm. Wordsworth. 

(90) Such is the patriot's boast where'er we roam, 
His first, best country ever is at home. 

— Oliver Goldsmith. 

(91) Tell them, dear, if eyes were made for seeing. 
Then beauty is its own excuse for being. 

— Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

(92) A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous 
words stir up anger. — Prov. 15:1. 

(93) Whichever way the wind doth blow, 
Some heart is glad to have it so; 
And blow it east or blow it west. 

The wind that blows, that wind is best. 

— C. Mason. 

(94) -The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye 
took in the whole thing at a glance. "Hurry," he cried, 
"here are turtles." — Class Reader. 

(95) The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; 
blessed be the name of the Lord. — Job 1. 

(96) Where hast thou gleaned to-day? — Ruth 2. 

(97) The Lord bless thee, and keep thee; the Lord make 
His face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee; the 
Lord lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace. 

— Numbers 6. 



140 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

GRADE 4B. 

I. 

Purpose — Correlation with nature. 

Points for study — Spelling, punctuatijn: Use of dash 
and quotation marks. 

(98) Eighteen of our ferns — the ones a kind friend sent 
us — are slowly uncurling their furry balls and showing new 
fronds. We have set our ferns in a shady place, for 

"Where the morning dew lies longest, 
There the lady fern grows strongest." 
Purpose — Ethical. 
Points for study — Punctuation: broken quotations. 

(99) "The talent of success," said a wise ntian, "is nothing 
more than doing what you can do well." 

Purpose — Literary. 

Points for study — Dash reviewed, use of comma in series 
reviewed, com,mas to set off names of person addressed, excla- 
mation point. 

(100) Great, wide, wonderful, beautiful world, 
With the wonderful waters about you curled, 
And the wonderful grass upon your breast, — 
World, you are beautifully dressed! 

II. 

(101) If there were only a sure recipe for making a cheery 
person, how glad we should all be to try it! How thankful 
we should all be to do good like sunshine! To cheer every- 
body up and help everybody along! — to have everybody's 
face brighten the minute we came in sight! — H. H. Jackson. 

(102) The sun does not shine for a few trees and flowers 
only, but for the wide world's joy. The lonely pine on the 
mountain-top waves its dark boughs and cries, "Thou are 
my sun!" — H. W. Beecher. 

(103) And though I have the gift of prophecy, and under- 
stand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have 
all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not 
charity, I am nothing. — 1 Corinthians, xiii. 



WORK IN DICTATION 141 

The Arbutus. 

(104) A lesson hast thou taught to me that all 

Man's vain philosophy has failed to bring — 
The faith that He who makes the leaves to fall 
Will send the spring. — Walter T. Field. 

(105) Remember, boy, that behind all these men you 
have to do with, behind officers and government and people 
even, there is the Country herself, your Country, and that 
you belong to her as you belong to your own mother." — 
Edward E. Hale. 

(106) Wings for the angels, but feet for men! 

We may borrow the wings to find the way, — 
We may hope, and resolve, and aspire, and pray; 
But our feet must rise, or we fall again. 

— J. G. Holland. 
(^Broken quotation — exclamation point.) 

(107) "Oh, stop, stop!" the little girl cried out, "there's 
my father! O, Father, Father! " 

(108) "I saw a crowd, 

A host of golden daffodils 

Beside the lake, beneath the trees. 

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." 

— Wordswori h. 

(109) Out of the bosom of the air 

Out of the cloud-folds of her garments shaken 
Over the woodlands brov/n and bare. 
Over the harvest fields forsaken, 
Silent and soft and slow 
Descends the snow. — Longfellow. 

(110) He goes on Sunday to the church, 

And sits among his boys; 
He hears the parson pray and preach. 

He hears his daughter's voice, 
Singing in the village choir. 

And it makes his heart rejoice. 
It sounds to him like her mother's voice. 

Singing in Paradise! 



142 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Toiling, — rejoicing, — sorrowing. 

Onward through life he goes; 
Each morning sees some task begun, 

Each evening sees it close; 
Something attempted, something done. 

Has earned a night's repose. 
Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend. 

For the lesson thou hast taught! 
Thus at the flaming forge of life 

Our fortunes must be wrought; 
Thus on its sounding anvil shaped 

Each burning deed and thought! 

GRADE 5A. 

I. 

Punctuation and spelling — {Ethical and Literary.) Re- 
view of previous grades. 

New: Arrangement — second margin. 

(111) Labor is the magic stone that grinds life's golden 

meal. 
Take heed, youth! grind while you may. The 

current cannot last. 
The mill can never grind for you with water that has 
passed. 
Hyphen in compound words. 

Write the first word of a direct quotation with a capital. 
(Points taught in previous grade reviewed.) 

(112) Just then one of the Indians noticed the skates and 
asked what they were for. A ray of hope darted through 
Beaver Jim's mind as he answered, "The Great Spirit has 
shown the pale-face how to make wings so that he may skim 
over the ground as the bird flies through the air." — Cyr's 
Third Reader. 

Hyphen in compound words. 

Arrangement. 

Commas inserted at teacher's dictation. 

Use of capital in the word Time explained. 



WORK IN DICTATION 143 

(113) Gather ye rose-buds while ye may, 

Old Time is still a-flying, 
And this same flower that smiles to-day. 
To-morrow may be dying. — Herrick. 
E THi c AL — (Literary ) . 

(114) What sought they thus afar? 

Bright jewels of the mine? 
The wealth of seas, the spoils of war? 

They sought a faith's pure shrine! 
Ay! call it holy ground, 

The place where first they trod; 
They have left unstained what there they found — 
Freedom to worship God. — Mrs. Hemans. 
Ethical — (The first word of every direct quotation is to he 
written with a capital.) 

(115) Solomon said, "Better is a dinner of herbs where 
love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." 

To be correlated with history. 
To illustrate the use of capitals. 

(116) The war was over. Frederick was safe. His glory 
was beyond the reach of envy. If he had not made con- 
quests as vast as those of Alexander, of Cassar, and of Napo- 
leon, he had given an example unrivaled in history of what 
capacity and resolution can effect against the greatest 
superiority of power and the utmost spite of fortune. — 
Macaulay, "Frederick the Great." 

To be correlated with ethics. 

To illustrate the use of the semicolon. 

(117) My fairest child, I have no song to give you; 
No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray; 
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave' you 

For every day. 
Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 
Do noble things, not dream them, all day long; 
And so make life, death, and that vast forever 
One grand sweet song. — Charles Kingsley. 



144 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

To be correlated with geography. 

To illustrate one of the rules of spelling. {Final e before 
a suffix beginning with a vowel.) 

(118) Aetna, rising gently from the sea until its head 
towers above all else, is indeed of earth and heaven. The 
shining sun glorifies it, the moving shadows of its crown 
of cloud-banks give to it an always changing aspect, and 
through the clear atmosphere appears distinctly the furrowed 
garment of craters and valleys, lava torrents and forests. 

To be correlated with nature study. 
To illustrate the use of prepositions. 

(119) We shall cross wide prairies, and in some parts 
we shall see all over the plain the little prairie dogs, sitting 
on their hind legs at the doors of their burrows. And as we 
come near, with a jerk of the tail they will dive into their 
holes, but will soon come peeping out again to see what is 
the matter. — Old World Reader. 

II. 

(120) Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six 
days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work; but the seventh 
day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God. — Exodus 20. 

(121) Honor thy father and thy mother; that thy days 
may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth 
thee. — Exodus 20. 

(122) Let the words of my mouth, and the meditation of 
my hearr be acceptable in thy sight, O Lord, my strength, 
and my redeemer. — Psalm 19. 

(123) Not far from the village, perhaps about two miles, 
there is a little valley, or rather lap of land among high hills, 
which is one of the quietest places in the whole world. A 
small brook glides through it with just murmur enough to 
lull one to repose. — Washington Irving. 

. (124) A wind came up out of the sea, 

And said, "0 mists, make room for me." 
It hailed the ship, and cried, "Sail on. 
Ye mariners, the night is gone," 
And hurried landward far away. 
Crying, "Awake! it is the Day." • 



WORK IN DICTATION 145 

(125) Mr. and Mrs. Charles V. Rtie request the pleasure 
of Mr. and Mrs. William Chase's company next Thursday 
evening at eight o'clock. 

37 Ashley Place, 
May fourth. 

(126) "Yes, I know," answered Cedrie, eagerly, "but 
think, mother, how brave they are, and how good! Do they 
not protect our country?" — Elizabeth Harrison, Class Reader. 

(127) Every man must educate himself. His books and 
teacher are but helps; the work is his. A man is not edu- 
cated until he has the ability to summon, in an emergency, 
his mental powers in vigorous exercise to effect its proposed 
ob j ect. — Webster. 

GRADE 5B. 

I. 

Comma: 

(128) "And there he stands in memory to this day, 
Erect, self-poised, a rugged face half seen 
Against the background of unnatural dark, 
A witness to the ages as they pass. 

That simple duty hath no place for fear." 

— John G. Whittier. 

(129) The barn, the trees, the brook, the birds, 
The meadows with their lowing herds. 
The woodbine on the cottage wall — 

My heart still lingers with them all. 

— Thos. Buchanan Read. 

(130) A few amber clouds floated in the sky, without a 
breath of air to move them. The horizon was of a fine, 
golden tint, changing gradually into a pure apple-green, 
and from that into the deep-blue of the midheaven. — Irving, 
"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." 

II. 

(131) Let us, then, be up and doing, 

With a heart for any fate; 
Still achieving, still pursuing. 

Learn to labor and to wait. — Longfellow. 



146 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(132) What plant we in this apple tree? 

Fruits that shall swell in sunny June, 
And redden in the August noon, 
And drop, when gentle airs come by. 
That fan the blue September sky. — Bryant. 
(183) Work for some good, be it ever so slowly! 
Cherish some flower, be it ever so lowly! 
Labor! All labor is noble and holy; 

Let thy great deed be thy prayer to thy God. 

— Fcnnie S. Osgood. 

(134) Why art thou cast down, O my soul? and why art 
thou disquieted in me? Hope thou in God; for I shall yet 
praise Him for the help of His countenance. — Psalm 42. 

(135) And the Lord, He it is that doth go before thee; 
He will be with thee. He will not fail thee, neither forsake 
thee. Fear not, neither be dismayed. — Deuteronomy 31. 

(136) Teach me to do Thy will, for Thou art. my God.— 
Psalm 143. 

(137) A humming-bird met a butterfly, and being pleased 
with the beauty of his person and the glory of his wings, 
made an offer of perpetual friendship. 

"I cannot think of it," was the reply, "as you once spurned 
me and called me a drawling dolt." 

"Impossible!" exclaimed the humming-bird. "I always 
had the highest respect for such beautiful creatures as you." 

"Perhaps you have now," said the other; "but when 
you insulted me, I was a caterpillar. So let me give you a 
piece of advice. Never insult the humble, as they may 
Bome day become your superiors." 

(138) Now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but 
the greatest of these is charity. — The Bible. 

(139) We cannot honor our country with too deep a 
reverence. We cannot love her with an affection too pure 
and fervent. We cannot serve her with an energy of pur- 
pose or a faithfulness of zeal too steadfast and ardent. — Clay, 

(140) Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold. 
And to the presence in the room he said, 



WORK IN DICTATION 147 

"What writest thou?" the vision raised its head, 

And with a look made of all sweet accord, 

Answered, "The names of those who loved the Lord. ' 

"And is mine one?" "Nay, not so,'' 

Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low. 

But cheerily still, and said, "I pray thee, then. 

Write me as one that loves his fellow- men." 

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 

It came again with a great awakening light, 

And showed the names whom love of God had blessed, 

And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 

— Leigh Hunt. 
. " GRADE I. 6 A. 

(141) Do the clouds around thee gather, 

Making dark thy solitude? 
Each one hath an inward shining, 
Each one hath a silver lining; 

Hope for good! — Mrs. L. H. Sigourney. 

(142) When you know a thing, to hold that you know 
it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you 
do not know it, — this is knowledge. — Confucius. 

(143) I pray the prayer of Plato old, 
"God make thee beautiful within. 
And let thine eyes the good behold 

In everything save sin." — Whittier. 

(144) The greatest man is he who chooses the right with 
the most invincible resolution; who resists the sorest temp- 
tations from within and without; who bears the heaviest 
burdens cheerfully; who is calmest in storms and most 
fearless under menaces and frowns; whose reliance on truth, 
on virtue, on God, is most unfaltering. — William E. Charming. 

(145) Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen; 
Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath 

blown. 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

— Byron. 



148 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(146) Up spoke our own little Mabel, 
Saying, "Father, who makes it snow?" 

And I told of the good All-father 

Who cares for us here below. 
And again to the child I whispered, 

"The snow that husheth all, 
Darling, the merciful Father 

Alone can make it fall!" — Lowell. 

(147) For he who is honest is noble. 
Whatever his fortune or birth. — Cary. 

(148) Last stanza of "Sheridan'^ R do." 

(149) So nigh is grandeur to our dust, 

So near is God to man, 
When duty whispers low, "Thou must," 
The- youth replies, "I can." 

— Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

(150) "Land of song!" said the warrior bard, 

"Though all the world betrays thee. 
One sword, at least, thy rights shall guard. 
One faithful harp shall praise thee! " — Moore. 

(151) Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt find 
it after many days. 

He that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that 
regardeth the clouds shall not reap. 

Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear 
God, and keep His commandments; for this is the whole 
duty of man. — Ecclesiastes 11 and 12. 

(152) Two centuries ago, the smoke of their wigwams 
and the fires of their councils rose in every valley from 
Hudson's Bay to the farthest Florida, from the ocean to the 
Mississippi and the lakes. The shouts of victory and the 
war dance rang through the mountains and the glades. The 
thick arrows and the deadly tomahawk whistled through 
the forest; and the hunters' tread and the dark encampment 
startled the wild beasts in their lairs. The warriors stood 
forth in their glory. Braver men never lived; truer men 



WORK IN DICTATION 149 

never drew the bow. The'y had courage, and fortitude, and 
sagacity, and perseverance, beyond most of the human race. 
— Blackhawk. 

(153) Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the 
man that getteth understanding. For the merchandise of 
it is better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain 
thereof than fine gold. She is more precious than rubies; 
and none of the things thou canst desire are to be compared 
unto her. Length of days is in her right hand; in her left 
hand are riches and honor. Her ways are ways of pleasant- 
ness, and all her paths are peace. — Bible. 

GRADE 6B. 
II. 

(154) The whole of Addison's "The Spacious Firmament." 
Any stanza, or more than one stanza, of "Burial of Sir 

John Moore," 

Nothing useless is, or low; 

Each thing in its place is best; 
And what seems but idle show 
Strengthens and supports the rest. 

— Longfellow 

(155) The whole of Holmes's "Old Ironsides." 

(156) Last stanza of "The Blue and the Gray." 

(157) Once upon a time a clever barber in Germany had 
a pet starling that had learned to talk. The barber had the 
habit of repeating certain phrases over and over again, and 
the clever bird would repeat them also. "No man could 
have done better," the barber would say when he had shaved 
a customer; or, "I am the best barber in Germany." When 
he spoke of any plans for the future he would add, "If the 
fates are willing." And he often told one story that ended 
with the words, "By keeping bad company." — Class Reader. 

(158) Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, 
whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, 
whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good 
report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, 
think on these things. — Bible. 



150 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(159) Who shall ascend the hill of the Lord? or who shall 
stand in His holy place? He that hath clean hands and a 
pure heart; who hath not lifted up his soul unto vanity, 
nor sworn deceitfully. He shall receive the blessing from 
the Lord and righteousness from the Lord of his salvation. — 
Psalm 24. 

(160) That lovely and lightsome little figure of Hope! 
What in the world could we do without her? Hope spirit- 
ualizes the earth; Hope makes it always new; and even in 
the earth's best and brightest aspect, Hope shows it to be 
only the shadow of an infinite bliss hereafter! — Nathaniel 
Hawthorne. 

March. 

(161) Ah, passing few are they who speak, 

Wild, stormy month, in praise of thee! 
Yet though thy winds are loud and bleak, 

Thou art a welcome month to me. 
For thou to northern lands again 

The glad and glorious sun dost bring; 
And thou hast joined the gentle train. 

And wear'st the gentle name of Spring. 

— William Cullen Bryant. 

(162) A gourd once wound itself around a lofty palm, and 
in a few days climbed to its very top. "How old may'st 
thou be?" asked the new comer. "About a hundred years." 
"About a hundred years and no taller! Only see! I have 
grown as tall as you in fewer days than you can count years." 
"I know that," replied the palm. "Every summer of my 
life a gourd has climbed up around me, as proud as thou art, 
and as short-lived as thou wilt be." 

(163) A sower went out to sow his seed: and as he sowed, 
some fell by the wayside, and it was trodden down, and the 
fowls of the air devoured it. And some fell upon a rock; 
and as soon as it was sprung up, it withered away, because 
it lacked moisture. And some fell among thorns; and the 
thorns sprang up with it, and choked it. And other fell on 
good ground, and sprang up, and bore fruit an hundredfold. 
— Bible. 



WORK IN DICTATION 151 

(1 64) Better than grandeur, better than gold, 
Than rank or titles, a hundredfold. 

Is a healthy body, and a mind at ease. 
And simple pleasures that always please. 
A heart that can feel for a neighbor's woe. 
And share in his joy with a friendly glow, — 
With sympathies large enough to infold 
All men as brothers, h better than gold. 

— Alexander Smart. 
GBi^DE 7 A. 

II. 

Note. — The pupils of grades 7A, 7B, 8A and 8B should 
write from dictation and from memory all the selections 
they rriemorize, including the words of their songs. Thf» 
following selections have been made by teachers of these 
upper grades. 

(165) There is the national flag. He must be cold indeed 
who can look upon its folds, rippling in the breeze, without 
pride of country. If he.be in a foreign land, the flag is com- 
panionship and country itself, with all its endearments. 

Who, as he sees it, can think of a state merely? Whose 
eyes once fastened upon its radiant trophies, can fail to 
recognize the image of the whole nation? It has been 
called a floating piece of poetry, and yet I know not if it 
have an intrinsic beauty beyond other ensigns. Its highest 
beauty is in what it symbolizes It is because it represents 
all, that all gaze at it with delight and reverence. — Robert 
C. Winthrop, "The Flag of Our Country." 

(166) The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the 

year. 
Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows 

brown and sear. 
Heaped in the hollows of the grove the withered 

leaves lie dead; 
They rustle to the eddying gust and to the rabbit's 

tread. 
The robin and the wren are flown, and from the 

shrubs the jay. 
And from the wood-top calls the crow through all 

the gloomy day. — Bryant. 



152 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(167) "Father, I'm lonely in the dark. I want my eyes; 
my patient, willing eyes." 

"Here they are," said Caleb. "Always ready. They are 
more yours than mine. Bertha, any hour in the four and 
twenty. What shall your eyes do for you, dear?" 

"Look around the room, father." 

"All right," said Caleb. "No sooner said than done. 
Bertha." 

"Tell me about it." 

"It's about the same as usual," said Caleb. "Homely, 
but very snug. The gay colors on the walls; the bright 
flowers on the plates and dishes; the shining wood, where 
there are beams or panels; the general cheerfulness and 
neatness of the building make things very pretty." — Charles 
Dickens. 

(168) Then they sat down and talked of the birds and the 

beautiful springtime; 
Talked of their friends at home, and the Mayflower 

that sailed on the morrow. 
*'I have been thinking all day," said gently the 

Puritan maiden, 
"Dreaming all night, and thinking all day, of the 

hedge-rows of England, — 
They are all in blossom now, and the country is all 

like a garden." 
( — Henry W. LongjeUow, "The Courtship of Miles Standish." 

(169) The heavens declare the glory of God; 
And the firmament showeth his handiwork. 
Day unto day uttereth speech, 

And night unto night showeth knowledge; 

There is no speech nor language, 

Where their voice is not heard. 

Their line is gone out through all the earth, 

And their words to the end of the world. 

In them hath he set a tabernacle for the sun. 

Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber. 

And rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race. 



WORK IN DICTATION 153 

His going forth is from the end of the heaven. 
And his circuit unto the end of it : 
And there is nothing hid from the heat thereof. 

— Psalm 19. 

(170) No stream from its source 

Flows seaward, how lonely soever its course, 
But what some land is gladdened. 

No star ever rose 
And set, without influence somewhere.^ 

Who knows 
What earth needs from earth's lowest creature? No life 
Can be pure in its purpose and strong in its strife 
And all life not be purer and stronger thereby. 

— Owen Meredith, "Lucile," 

(171) Oh, there is an enduring tenderness in the love of a 
mother to a son that transcends all other affections of the 
heart. It is neither to be chilled by selfishness, nor daunted 
by danger, nor weakened by worthlessness, nor stifled by 
ingratitude. She will sacrifice every comfort to his con- 
venience;, she will surrender every pleasure to his enjoyment; 
she will glory in his fame and exult in his prosperity; and, 
if misfortune overtake him, he will be the dearer to her 
from misfortune; and if disgrace settle upon his name, 
she will still love and cherish him in spite of his disgrace; 
and if all the world beside cast him off, she will be all the 
world to him. — Washington Irving, Sketch Book, "The Widow 
and Her Son." 

(172) The moon above the eastern wood 
Shone at its full; the hill-range stood 
Transfigured in the silver flood, 

Its blown snows flashing cold and keen, 
Dead white, save where some sharp ravine 
Took shadow, or the sombre green 
Of hemlocks turned to pitchy black 
Against the whiteness of their back. 
For such a world and such a night 
Most fitting that unwarming light. 
Which only seemed where'er it fell 
To make the coldness visible. 

— Whittier, "Snowbound." 



154 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(173) Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe 
and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but 
to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others 
to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. 
That is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to 
be read but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly 
and with diligence and attention. 

Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; 
and writing an exact man; and, therefore, if a man write 
little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, 
he had need have a present wit ; and if he read little, he had 
need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. 

— Francis Bacon. 

(174) Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet. 
With charm of earliest birds; pleasant the sun, 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 

His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower. 
Glistening with dew; fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft showers, and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful evening mild: then silent Night, 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon. 
And these the gems of heaven, her starry train. 

— Milton. 
GRADE 7B. 

II. 

(175) Since trifles make the sum of human things, 
And half our misery from our foibles springs; 
Since life's best joys consist in peace and ease. 
And few can save or serve, but all may please; 
Oh! let th' ungentle spirit learn from hence 

A small unkindness is a great offence. 
Large bounties to restore we wish in vain, 
But all may shun the guilt of giving pain. 

— Hannah Moore. 

(176) Laziness is a vice because it sacrifices the permanent 
interest of self-support to the temporary inclination to 
indolence and ease. The lazy man is the slave of his own 



WORK IN DICTATION 155 

feelings. His body is his master; not his servant. He is the 
slave of circumstances. What he does, depends not on 
what he knows it is best to do, but on how he happens to 
feel. Laziness is weakness, submission, defeat, slavery to 
feeling and circumstance; and these g,re the universal 
characteristics of vice. — De Witt Hyde. 

(177) The traveler and the camper-out in Maine, unless 
he penetrates its more northern portion, has less reason to 
remember it as a pine-tree State than a birch-tree State. 
The white-pine forests have melted away like snow in the 
spring, and gone down stream, leaving only patches here 
and there in the more remote and inaccessible parts. But 
the birch abounds. Indeed, when the pine goes out the 
birch comes in; the race of men succeeds the race of giants. 
This tree has great stay-at-home virtues. Let the sombre, 
aspiring, mysterious pine go ; the birch has humble every-day 
virtues. — John Burroughs. 

(178) Courage to do right when everyone around us is 
doing wrong; courage to say "No" when everyone is trying 
to make us say "Yes"; courage to bear uncomplainingly the 
inevitable ills of life; these are the forms of courage mcst 
frequently demanded and most difficult to exercise in the 
peaceful security of a civilized community. Patience and 
fortitude are courage exercised in the conditions of modern 
life. — William De Witt Hyde. 

(179) The Declaration will inspire the people with in- 
creased courage. Instead of a long and bloody war for 
restoration of privileges, for redress of grievances, for char- 
tered immunities, held under a British King, set before them 
the glorious object of entire independence, and it will breathe 
into them anew the breath of life. Read this Declaration 
at the head of the army; every sword will be drawn from 
its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered, to maintain it, or 
to perish. — Daniel Webster. 

(180) Oh may I join the choir invisible 

Of those immortal dead who live again 

In minds made better by their presence: live 

In pulses stirred to generosity. 



156 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn 

For miserable aims that end with self, 

In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars, 

And with their mild persistence urge man's search 

To vaster issues. So to live is heaven. 

— George Eliot. 

(181) Like as a father pitieth His children, so the Lord 
pitieth them that fear Him. For He knoweth our frame; 
he remember eth that we are dust. As for man, his days 
are as grass; as a flower of the field, so he flourisheth. For 
the wind passeth over it, and it is gone; and the place 
thereof shall know it no more. But the mercy of the Lord 
is from everlasting to everlasting upon them that fear Him, 
and His righteousness unto children's children, to such as 
keep His covenant, and to those that remember His com- 
mandments to do them. — Psalm 103. 

(182) There is always a best way of doing everything. 
Manners are the happy ways of doing things; each, once a 
stroke of genius or of love, — now repeated and hardened 
into usage, they form at last a rich varnish, with which the 
routine of life is washed, and its details adorned. If they 
are superficial, so are the dew-drops which give such a 
depth to the morning meadows. . . . 

The power of manners is incessant. Give a boy address 
and accomplishments, and you give him the mastery of 
palaces and fortunes where he goes. He has not the trouble 
of earning or owning them; they solicit him to enter and 
possess. — Emerson. "Behavior." 

(183) It was about this time I conceived the bold and 
arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. As I knew, 
or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see 
why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. 
But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty 
than I had imagined. While my care was employed in 
guarding against one fault, I was often surprised by another. 
I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction 
that it was our interest to be completely virtuous, was not 



WORK IN DICTATION 157 

enough to prevent our slipping; and that the contrary 
habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and estab- 
lished, before we can have any dependence on a steady, 
untform rectitude of character. — Benjamin Franklin. 

(184) Talk not of wasted affection; affection never was 

wasted ; 

If it enrich not the heart of another, its waters, re- 
turning 

Back to their springs, like the rain, shall fill them 
full of refreshment; 

That which the fountain sends forth returns again 
to the fountain. 

Patience; accomplish thy labor; accomplish thy 
work of affection! 

Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endur- 
ance is godlike. — Longfellow, "Evangeline." 

(185) The noblest scenes of the earth can be seen and 
known but by few; it is not intended that man should 
always live in the midst of them: he injures them by his 
presence; he ceases to feel them if he be always with them. 
But the sky is for all; bright as it is, it is not "too bright 
or good for human nature's daily food*'; it is fitted in all 
its functions for the perpetual comfort and exalting of the 
heart; for soothing it, and purifying it from its dross and 
dust. — John Ruskin. 

GRADE 8A. 
II. 

(186) The men who have achieved success are the men 
who have worked, read, thought more than was absolutely 
necessary, who have not been content with knowledge suffi- 
cient for the present need, but who have sought additional . 
knowledge and stored it away for the emergency reserve- 
It is the superfluous labor that equips a man for everything 
that counts most in life. — Cushman K. Davis. 

(187) The first and last stanzas of "The Chambered 
Nautilus," Holmes. 



158 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(188) It is a fixed law of nature, the wisdom of which we 
may not, perhaps, fully comprehend, but which, like every 
other rule proceeding from the great Author of nature, must 
be right, — that no important benefit is to be acquired but 
by the exercise of self-denial, and corresponding effort- 
Present and inferior gratifications must be sacrificed for the 
sake of the future and greater good; and, whatever may 
be the result of other undertakings, in which it is not given 
to mortals to command success, virtuous exertion never 
fails to bring with it a greater or less reward. — Ira Harris. 

(189) Every disposition and behavior has a kind of mag- 
netic attraction by which it draws to itself its like. Selfish- 
ness will hardly be a center, round which the benevolent 
affections will revolve; the cold-hearted may expect to be 
treated with coldness, and the proud with haughtiness; the 
passionate with anger, and the violent with rudeness; those 
who forget the rights of others, must not be surprised, if 
their own are forgotten; and those who forget their dgnity, 
who stoop to the lowest embraces of sense, must not wonder 
if others are not concerned to find their prostrate honor, 
and to lift it up to the remembrance and respect of the 
world. — Dewey. 

(190) What man of you, having an hundred sheep, if he 
lose one of them, doth not leave the ninety and nine in the 
wilderness, and go after that which is lost, until he find it? 
And when he hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders, 
rejoicing. And when he cometh home, he calleth together 
his friends and neighbors, saying unto them, "Rejoice with 
me: for I have found my sheep which was lost." 

I say unto you that likewise joy shall be in heaven over 
one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine 
just persons, which need no repentance. — New Testament. 

(191) And there the startling drum and fife 
Fired the living with fiercer life; 
While overhead, with wild increase. 
Forgetting its ancient toll of peace. 

The great bell swung as ne'er before: 



WORK IN DICTATION 159 

It seemed as it would never cease; 
And every word its ardor flung 
From off its jubilant iron tongue 

Was, "War! War! War!" 
"Who dares" — this was the patriot's cry- 
As striding from the desk he came — 
"Come out with me, in Freedom's name. 
For her to live, for her to die? " 
A hundred hands flung up reply, 
A hundred voices answered, "I!" — Read. 

(192) Above all this scenery of perfect human life, rose 
dome and bell-tower burning with white alabaster and gold ; 
beyond dome and bell-tower the slopes of mighty hills hoary 
with olives; far in the north, above a purple sea of peaks 
of solemn Apennine, the clear, sharp-cloven Carrara moun- 
tains send up their steadfast flames of marble summit into 
amber sky; the great sea itself, scorching with expanse of 
light, stretching from their feet to the Gorgonian isles; and 
over all these, ever present, near or far, that untroubled and 
sacred sky, which opened straight through its gates of cloud 
and veils of dew into the awfulness of the eternal world; a 
heaven in which every cloud that passed was literally the 
chariot of an angel and every ray of its Evening and Morning 
streamed from the throne of God. — Ruskin. 

(193) Relentless Time that steals with silent tread. 
Shall tear away the trophies of the dead. 
Fame, on the pyramid's aspiring top. 

With sighs shall her recording trumpet drop; 

The feeble characters of Glory's hand, 

Shall perish, like the tracks upon the sand ; 

But not with these expire the sacred flame 

Of Virtue, or the good man's awful name. — Bowles. 

(194) Already has the age caught the spirit of our insti- 
tutions. It has already ascended the Andes and snuffed 
the breezes of both oceans. It has infused itself into the 
life-blood of Europe and warmed the sunny plains of France 
and the low lands of Holland. It has touched the Philosophy 



160 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

of Germany and the North ; and, moving onward to the South, 
has opened to Greece the lessons of her better days. Can 
it be that America, under such circumstances, can betray 
herself? Can it be that she is to be added to the catalogue 
of republics, the inscription upon whose ruins is: "They 
were, but they are not"? Forbid it, my countrymen! For- 
bid it. Heaven! — Story. 

(195) "I know there is a God and that He hates injustice 
and slavery. I see the storm coming and I know His hand 
is in it. If He has a place and work for me, — and I think 
He has, — I believe I am ready. I am nothing, but truth is 
everything. Douglas does not care whether slavery is 
voted up or down, but God cares, and humanity cares, and 
I care, and with God's help, I shall not fail. I may not see 
the end, but it will come, and I shall be vindicated, and 
these men will find that they have not read their Bible 
aright." — Abraham Lincoln. 

GRADE 8B. 
II. 

(196) On one of those sober and rather melancholy days 
in the latter part of autumn, when the shadows of morning 
and evening almost mingle together, and throw a gloom 
over the decline of the year, I passed several houses in 
rambling about Westminster Abbey. There was something 
congenial to the season in the mournful magnificence of the 
old pile; and, as I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping 
back into the regions of antiquity and losing myself among 
the shades of former ages. 

The sun was pouring down a yellow autumnal ray into 
the square of the cloisters, beaming upon a scanty plot of 
grass in the center, and lighting up an angle of the vaulted 
passage with a kind of dusky splendor. From between the 
arcades, the eye glanced up to a bit of blue sky or a passing 
cloud, and beheld the sun-gilt pinnacles of the abbey towering 
into the azure heaven. — Washington Irving. 



WORK IN DICTATION 161 

(197) We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths; 
In feelings, not in figures on a dial. 

We should count time by heart-throbs. 

He most lives 
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 

Life's but a means unto an end, that end 

Beginning, mean, and end to all things, — God. 

— Philip James Bailey. 

(198) The characteristic of heroism is its persistency. 
All men have wandering impulses, fits and starts of gener- 
osity. But when you have chosen your part, abide by it, 
and do not weakly try to reconcile yourself with the world. 
The heroic cannot be the common, nor the common the 
heroic. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

(199) To live content with small means — to seek elegance 
rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fashion — 
to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not rich — to 
study hard, think quietly, talk gently, act frankly — to listen 
to stars and birds, to babes and sages, with open heart — to 
bear all cheerfully, do all bravely, await occasions, hurry 
never: — in a word, to let the spiritual, unbidden, and uncon- 
scious grow up through the common. This is to be my 
symphony. — William Henry Channing. 

(200) I must confess, there is something in the change- 
ableness and inconstancy of human nature that very often 
both dejects and terrifies me. Whatever I am at present, I 
tremble to think what I may be. While I find this principle, 
how can I assure myself that I shall be always true to my 
God, my friend, or myself? In short,without constancy, there 
is neither love, friendship, nor virtue in the world. — Addison. 

(201) Our fathers raised their flag against a power to 
which, for purposes of foreign .conquest and subjugation, 
Rome, in the height of her glory, is not to be compared, — 
a power which has dotted the surface of the whole globe 
with her possessions and military posts, whose morning 
drum-beat, following the sun in his course, and keeping 
pace with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous 
and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England. — Webster. 



162 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

The Ocean. 

(202) Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; 
Man marks the earth with ruin, — his control 
Stops with the shore; — upon the watery plain 
The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain 
A shadow of man's ravage, save his own. 
When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, 

He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, 
Without a grave, unknelled, uncofiined, and un- 
known. — Byron. 

(203) With hair and beard floating in the wind, the bronze 
naked figure, like some weird old Indian fakir, still climbed 
on steadfastly up the mizzen-chains of the Spaniard, hatchet 
in hand, 

"Come back, Michael! Leap while you may!" shouted 
a dozen voices. Michael turned ■ 

"And what should I come back for, then, to go home 
where no one knoweth me? I'll die like an Englishman this 
day, or I'll know the reason why!" and turning he sprang 
in over the bulwarks, as the huge ship rolled up more and 
more, like a dying whale, exposing all her long black hulk 
almost down to her keel; and one of her lower deck guns 
as if in defiance, exploded upright into the air, hurling the 
ball to the very heavens. 

In an instant it was answered from the nose by a column 
of smoke, and the eighteen-pound ball crashed through the 
bottom of the defenceless Spaniard. 

— Kingsley. "Westward Ho!" 

(204) We live in a most extraordinary age. Events so 
various and so important that they might crown and dis- 
tinguish centuries, are, in our times, compressed within the 
compass of a single life. When has it happened that history 
has had so much to record, in the same term of years, as 
since the 17th of June, 1775? Our own Revolution, which, 
under other circumstances might itself have been expected 
to occasion a war of half a century, has been achieved; twen- 



WORK IN DICTATION 163 

ty-four sovereign and independent States erected; and a 
general government established over them, so safe, so wise, 
so free, so practical, that we might well wonder its establish- 
ment should have been accomplished so soon, were it not 
for the greater wonder that it should have been established 
at all. Two or three millions of people have been augmented 
to twelve, the great forests of the West prostrated beneath 
the arm of successful industry, and the dwellers on the banks 
of the Ohio and the Mississippi become the fellow-citizens 
and neighbors of those who cultivate the hills of New England. 
We have a commerce that leaves no sea unexplored; navies 
which take no law from superior force; revenues adequate 
to all the exigencies of government, almost without taxation ; 
and peace with all nations, founded on equal rights and 
mutual' respect. — Webster, First Bunker Hill Oration. 

(205) A man in pursuit of greatness feels no little wants. 
How can you mind diet, bed, dress, or salutes or compliments, 
or the figure you make in company, or wealth, or even the 
bringing things to pass,, when you think how paltry are the 
machinery and the workers? Wordsworth was praised to 
me, in Westmoreland, for having afforded to his country 
neighbors an example of a modest household where comfort 
and culture were secured without display. And a tender 
boy who wears his rusty cap and outgrown coat, that he 
may secure the coveted place in college, and the right in the 
library, is educated to some purpose. There is a great deal 
of self-denial and manliness in poor and middle-class houses, 
in town and country, that has not got into literature and 
never will, but keeps the earth sweet; that saves on super- 
fluities, and spends on essentials; that goes rusty, and 
educates the boy; that sells the horse, but builds the school; 
works early and late, takes two looms in the factory, three 
looms, six looms, but pays off the mortgage on the paternal 
farm, and then goes back cheerfully to work again. — Emer- 
son, Essay on Culture. 

(206) The garret, built to be a dry repository for firewood 
and the like, was dim and dark. Such a scanty portion of 



164 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

light was admitted, that it was difficult, on first comi-ng in, 
to see anything. Yet, with his back toward the door, and 
his face toward the window, a white-haired man sat on a low 
bench, stooping forward and very busy, making shoes. 

When he spoke the faintness of his voice was pitiable and 
dreadful. It was not the faintness of physical weakness, 
though confinement and hard fare no doubt had their part 
in it. Its deplorable peculiarity was, that it was the faint- 
ness of solitude and disuse. It was like the last feeble echo 
of a sound made long and long ago. 

The half-opened door was opened a little farther and 
secured at that angle for the time. A broad ray of light 
fell into the garret, and showed the workman, with an 
unfinished shoe upon his lap, pausing in his labor. His few 
common tools and various scraps of leather were at his feet 
on his bench. He had a white beard, raggedly cut, but not 
very long, a hollow face, and exceedingly bright eyes. The 
hollowness and thinness of his face would have caused them 
to look large, under his yet dark eyebrows and his confused 
white hair, though they had been really otherwise; but 
they were naturally large, and looked unnaturally so. His 
yellow rags of shirt lay open at the throat, and showed his 
body to be withered and worn. — Dickens, " The Tale of Two 
Cities." 

(207) God give us men! A time like this demands 

Strong minds, great hearts, true faith, and ready 
hands; 
Men whom the lust of office does not kill; 

Men whom the spoils of office can not buy; 
Men who possess opinions and a will; 
Men who have honor and will not lie; 
. Men who can stand before a demagogue 

And scorn his treacherous flatteries without wink- 
ing; 
Tall men, sun crowned, who live above the fog 
In public duty and in private thinking. 

— Josiah G. Holland. 



XII. 

Illustrative Compositions. 

The following compositions are reproduced substantially 
as written by children, and represent ordinary class work. 
The numbers correspond with those of the plan in chapter X. 

lA. 
(Original Stories written from "Stock Words" on 
Blackboard.) 
Wednesday. 

Do you see the little bug? 
It is red and black. 
I see a big doll. 
•I have a little cat. 
I see a lady bug. 
I like a lady bug. Edna Arment. 

lA (Dictation). 
I see a red seed. 
A cat can run. 

IB. 

(Copy — Each Child Copies Her Own Name). 
Elsie Burgoyne 
Elsie Burgoyne 
Elsie Burgoyne 
Elsie Burgoyne 

165 



166 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

IB (Copy). 
Friday. 
See my leaf! 
It is yellow. 
Some are red. 



Monday. 

Fred has a watch. 

He can tell you the time. 



IB (Copy). 



Felix Ruppert. 



Arline Conyers. 



2A (Copy). 
When the leaves begin to fall, the birds start to fly south. 

Elmore Keiser. 
2A (Dictated). 

The pupils are busy with their lessons. 
They are not lazy boys and girls. 

Luther Beck. 
2A. 
(Sentences copied from blackboard in connection with 
an oral language lesson on the correct use of "a great many," 
not "a whole lot.") 

I have a great many books. 
I have a great many pencils. 
I have a great many toys. 

Elmore L. Keiser. 

2 A (Copied Paragraph). 
A fox saw some grapes upon a vine. He tried to get them, 
but he could not. He tried, and tried, and tried. "The 
grapes are sour," said he, and ran away. 

Lillian McConchie. 

2B (Reproduction). 
The Owl. 
The owl is very sly. His eyes are wide apart. He has 
soft feathers. He has a long curved bill. You can not 
hear him when he flies. 

Dorothy Bernhard. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 167 

19. 
The Squirrel. 
The squirrel has a long bushy tail. The front paws are 
short with four toes. The hind paws have five. Squirrels 
live most of the time in trees. They use nuts for food. 

Max Skomroch. 
27. 

The poem was read to children and they arranged their 
paragraphs in answer to the following leading questions: 
Who was Hiawatha? 
With whom did he live? 
What did Nokomis teach him? 
What were some of the things Hiawatha liked to do? 

Hiawatha. 
Hiawatha was a little Indian boy. 

He lived with his grandmother Nokomis. He lived in a 
wigwam near a river. 

She taught him the song to sing to the fireflies, and taught 
him how to understand the animals. 

He loved to sit outside of the wigwam and listen to the 
owls at night. 

Elizabeth Hutchison 

38 (See note under 40). 

Land of Counterpane. 
I Robert was ill, so he had to stay in bed. Robert did 
not like it, and he amused himself by taking his tin soldiers 
out and drilling them among the blankets. He also sent 
his boats sailing among the sheets. Sometimes he took his 
trees and houses out, and made believe he was an ugly 
giant who sat upon the Pillow Hill. 

Enid Jacobs. 
40. 

Aim. — To test children's ability to paragraph properly 
when left to themselves; so there were no leading questions, 
topics, or guides of any kind given them. This shows how 
far ahead of the plan some schools can go. 



168 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

(Reproduction, ) 
The Pilgrim Church. 

The Pilgrims used to have very long sermons, and the 
little children would get very tired, for the benches were 
quite high and hard. 

In church there was a man called a "tithing man" who 
had a long rod, on one end there was a squirrel's tail, and 
on the other end was a knob. If the "tithing man" saw a 
woman nodding he would tickle her nose. If children were 
moving the knob would hit their heads. 

Lelia Taylor. 

55. 

Broad — Some trees have very broad leaves. 

Carries — Ruth sometimes carries a basket of fruit to her 
grandmother. 

Indians — The Indians paint their faces red and put feath- 
ers of all colors in their hair. 

Katherine Mayer. 

57. 

The Eagle. 

This large bird has a short, strong, hooked beak. Its 
eyes are very bright and look wild. It can fly a long time, 
and flies very fast. Its talons are strong, sharp, and hooked 
at the end. It eats hens, turkeys, rabbits, lambs, insects, 
snakes, and fish, which it takes from other birds. It is 
called a bird of prey. 

Matilda Schloss. 

59. 

Trees. 

The trees are of use to people. They breathe the air 
that we do not breathe. They give the birds a place to 
build their nests. They give the sick people pleasure be- 
cause they like to hear the birds sing their sweet songs. 

Lillian Belknap. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 169 

62. 

511 West 112th Street, 

New York; City. 
Dear Lucy, 

Would you like to see the circus next Saturday? My 
mother says that if you can go she will take us. 

If you can come let us know as soon as you can so she can 
get the tickets ahead of time. 

Your friend, 
November 13, 1905. Eileen Hubbard. 

63. 

The Fox and the Grapes. 

There was once a fox who was walking by a grape-vine. 
Foxes are very fond ef grapes especially this one was. 

He jumped and jumped and jumped, but he could not 
reach them. 

He got very tired and lay down on the grass to rest. He 
thought that afterwards he could get them. But he 
could not. So he went away very angry and said, "I would 
not eat them for they are sour." 

Ethel Harris. 

64. 

"My Mary's asleep by the murmuring stream, 
• "Flow gently sweet Afton, disturb not her dream." 
Christopher Columbus discovered America Oct. 12, 1492. 
My aunt lives in Washington Street, Brooklyn. 

• Hugh J. Murphy. 

66. 

The English and American Fleets, 

Everybody in America ought to know that Prince Louis 
of Battenberg is visiting us. Our teacher and the principal 
of our school took us down to Riverside Drive to see the 
English and American warships in the Hudson River. I 
never saw a more beautiful sight. 



170 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

It was a fresh, clear morning, and the sun shone on the 
fleet till they looked like gold. 

But last night it was better still. All the fleet were 
decorated with glittering electric lights, so that it looked 
like Fairyland. The name of the boat the Prince is on, is 
the Drake. 

Gertrude Purcell. 

66. 

"When I Grow Up. 

When I grow up, if I live I want to be a milliner. When I 
play with my doll on a rainy day, my mother sits down and 
watches me. I take my doll's hat and trim it with pink 
flowers and ribbon. 

Then mother will say to me, "When you grow up I hope 
you will be a milliner, because you trim hats very nicely." 

Helen Keough. 

71. 

The Snail. 

The snail has a way to defend tself. When a fish comes 

to eat it up it goes in its shell. 

The snails sometimes have beautiful shells, which are hard 
In v/inter, when it is very cold, the snail makes a thin skin 

across the opening. 

Bruce Jillson. 

71. 

squirrel plants 

dog hunters 

George Washington, 
The squirrel hides his nuts. 
The watch dog guards a house. 
Plants bloom in summer. 
The hunters kill foxes. 
George Washington commanded the American army. 

AaNES KlEKNAN: 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 171 

87. 
How TO Play "Blindman's Buff." 

"Blindman's Buff" was first played by English boys and 
girls, so it is known as an English game. To play this 
game some boys and girls and a handkerchief are needed. 

One of the children playing is "it." That one is blind- 
folded with the handkerchief and then tries to catch one of 
the players. When one of the players is caught the one 
that is "it" has to guess who it is. If he guesses rightly, 
the one caught is "it" in his place. If he does not guess 
rightly he must be "it" again. 

This game is very funny because the one who is "it" some- 
times catches hold of pieces of furniture and thinks it is one 

of the players. 

Helen Russell. 
89. 
Dear Miss Bronstein: 

Please excuse my absence from school. I have sprained 
my ankle and will not be able to walk for a few days. 

Will you kindly send my lessons with Clara Seiberth, as I 
have no brothers or sisters. 

Very respectfully yours, 

Louise Lefebvre. 
4 West 104th St., 
Thursday, November 9th. 

93 (Third type-form of sentences). 
A Description of a Geranium Leaf. 
This leaf is dark green on its upper side and light green on 
its under side. It is very velvety. 

The shape of the leaf is round with little scallops. It is 
' one and one-half inches long and two and one-quarter wide. 

The stem is long and round. 

Dorothy Lloyd. 
103. 

Helping Each Other. 
It was sunset. A young and adventurous bee was on a 
flower that was growing by the side of a stream. Presently 



172 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

a little girl came along, and seeing the flower, picked it to 
take home. The stem was rough and hard to break, and in 
doing this, she accidentally knocked the bee into the stream, 
A bird was sitting in a tree and saw the bee's plight. Pluck- 
ing a leaf from the tree, she threw it into the rivulet, and 
so saved the bee's life. 

Soon after, as the bee was returning to his home, thinking 
of his recent narrow escape, he was aroused by a low, weak 
cry from something in misery. Looking around, he saw 
the farmer's son about to wring off his friend the quail's 
head. He was very sharp-witted, and knew at once what 
to do. He came up very cautiously behind the would-be 
slaughterer, and stung him sharply on the hand. The quail 
was instantly forgotten, and the boy ran howling home to 
his mother. Ever after the bee and the bird were insep- 
arable companions. 

Jessie H. Daves. 

121. 
120 West 101st Street, 
New York, Sept. 14, 1905. 
Dear Alice, 

Next Saturday my mother v/ill take me with her into the 
woods. I am allowed to invite several of my friends. I 
thought of you at once. Would you like to take such a 
trip? We leave at nine o'clock in the morning and take a 
good lunch with us. 

Ask your parents for permission to go. I shall wait for 
your answer until to-morrow. 

Your loving friend, 

Fannie Friedland. 

122. 

7 West 107th Street, 
New York, Sept. 21, '05. 
Dear Myra, 

I am going to have a little picnic next Saturday, and I 
would like to know if you could come. I will wait for your 
answer until the day after to-morrow. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 173 

We will start from our house at half-past nine. Please 
don't bring any lunch, as we will furnish it. But please 
bring a few games, if you can. 

Your loving friend. 

Norma Hotaling. 

125. 
How TO Play Tee-tah-toe. 

This kind of "tee-tah-toe," three in a row, may have 
been in the first place an Indian game, as it is played with 
grains of Indian corn. A piece of board is grooved with a 
jack-knife, in the manner shown in the diagram. 

One player has three red or yellow grains of corn, and the 
other an equal number of white grains. The player who 
won the last game has the "go," — that is, he first puts down 
a grain of corn at any point where the lines meet, but usually 
in the middle of the board, as that is the best place. Then 
the player puts down one, and so on, until all the grains are 
down. After this the players move alternately along any 
of the lines, in any direction, to the next meeting point of 
the lines, provided it is not already occupied. Tke one 
who first succeeds in getting his three grains in a row wins 
the game, and the board is cleared for a new game. 

As there are always three vacant points, and as the rows 
may be formed in any direction along any of the lines, the 
game gives a chance for more variety of combinations than 
one would expect from the appearance of the board. 

Fr«m "The Hoosier Schoolboy" — Edward Eggleston. 

Cecilia Hogan 

126. 

Sherlock Holmes. 
In this game cards are needed. Each card has to have a 
word on it. There are six cards which have the picture of 
Sherlock Holmes on them. Every card which has robber, 
thief, or burglar on it counts one, and a card which has 
Sherlock Holmes on it counts five. Any number of people 
can play, but one can not. 



174 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Every person puts down a card until two cards come with 
the same word on them. Then somebody shouts the word, 
whatever it may be. If two Sherlock Holmes cards come 
together, then the person who gets it can take any card 
that is on the table. You can play to any number wanted. 
The person having the number agreed on wins. 

The game is interesting because you can make a story 
with the cards. 

Florence McCutcheon. 

[Note. — The above specimen is offered because it exhibits 
an error very common in such exercises. One could not 
play the game with this explanation as a guide, which 
proves the exposition to be faulty.] 

129. 
' Little Red Riding Hood. 

Little Red Riding Hood was a very sweet child who lived 
with her mother in a small cottage in the woods. She 
generally wore a little red cape and hood. That is why she 
was so often called Red Riding Hood. 

One day, as she started out to play, her mother called her 
, back*and said, "Come, Red Riding Hood, take this basket 
of fruit to your grandmother, as she is ill." 

Off started Red Riding Hood, gathering flowers here and 
there of all varieties, when to her surprise, there stood a 
wolf right in front of her. "Good morning, Red Riding 
Hood, and, where are you going this morning?" "I am 
going to my grandmother who lives in the woods." 

The wolf, being so hungry, did not stop to see if any one 
was near and started to spring upon the little girl, but was 
interrupted by a workman's blow of his ax, which killed 
the wicked wolf, and the workman took little Red Riding 
Hood safely home. 

142. 

Will Miss Wilson excuse Harry Jones from school at half- 
past one, and oblige his mother? 

Mary C. Jones. 
165 West 102 Street. 
Wednesday afternoon. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 175 

143. 
Soft Persuasion. 
A sweet curly-haired little girl and her dog are in their 
back yard. She is dressed in a little white gown with small 
puffed sleeves; her head is half covered by a cap, and her 
face is one soft smile. But doggie is not quite so agreeable, 
perhaps it is because he is chained to his kennel and cannot 
run about. He is sitting on a basket with a cold, wise look 
on his face. 

m 




She is bending over the side of her chair, balancing herself 
with one hand while with the other she is offering him a 
piece of candy, trying, no doubt, to soothe his ruffled feelings. 
His face is turned away from her, not even caring to look 
at the proffered present. 

Perhaps, if she coaxed him with a bone, he would not act 
so, but who knows, doggie can't speak, and if he could, I 
think he would be too indignant to do so. 

Emma Seipp. 



176 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

162. 
A Policeman. 
Every morning, as I go to school, I meet a policeman 
who takes me across the car tracks safely. He is a tall man, 
with brown eyes. He wears a uniform of blue, with a white 
stripe on each side of his trousers, and a blue stripe on his 
arm. Inside of his coat is a badge which identifies him. 
His hat is called a helmet and has the same number on it 
as his coat. 

He is robust and stands erect. He is very polite to all 
people who behave nicely, but if anybody makes a disturb- 
ance, he arrests him. 

Mildred Winkler. 
181. 

Invalids' Food. 

Of course we all know that the list of eatables allowed an 
invalid or a convalescent is of necessity a short one; but 
there are an infinite number of ways of varying this list if 
one will use a little judgment and good taste. 

We have all had experience in seeing a sick person make 
a wry face at the mention of gruel or porridge, and precious 
little we blamed him. But the whole position of affairs may 
be changed by preparing it in this way: Have a pint of 
chicken broth, free from fat, and not too strong; boil it, and 
shake into it slowly a cup of oatmeal or wheaten grits; cook 
for half an hour or so, put through a wire sieve, and add a 
little more broth if that is necessary to make it fit to be 
sipped from a cup without a spoon. Take it to the sick- 
room with this remark, "I have brought you a little puree 
of oatmeal," and my word for it, you will not see a drop 
left in the cup. 

182. 

How TO Dress a Doll. 
Every child knows what fun it is to make dolls' clothes, 
especially on a rainy day. There are so many ways of 
dressing a doll that one need never tire of it, if one have 
enough goods. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 171 

The first thing to make is the flannel petticoat, which need 
have no trimming. Get a piece of white outing flannel, 
about three times as long as it is wide, hem it, gather at the 
top, and sew each side together about three-quarters of the 
way up; make a band to fit the doll's waist and sew it on 
the gathers and your petticoat is made. Make the white 
one in the same way with a little ruflie of embroidery, if 
desired. To make the dress, get a piece of goods, white or 
figured, and make the skirt in the same way as the flannel 
petticoat, leaving the band off. The waist must be cut 
longer in the front than in the back so that it will blouse 
nicely. After seaming the shoulders, make the sleeves and 

put them in the armholes. 

Kathleen E. Murphy. 
202. 

An Illustrated Diary. 
An illustrated diary is a very pretty article. It can be 
made almost as easily as a plain diary and is much prettier. 
Write each day's happenings and events minutely in a 
booklet, made of plain note paper, any color, tied together 
at the side with little knots of ribbon. Decorate the diary 
profusely with little pictures, colored or otherwise. Each 
picture should" be pasted next to or near the event which it 
illustrates. The pictures can be cut from magazines and 
advertisements. If you write every detail and make it 
interesting, you will in after years be able to recall the 
outings of your childhood, and though they may seem 
commonplace now, they will amuse you when you grow older. 

Sophie Seipp. 
203. 

223 Chauncey Street, 
New York, June 1, 1905. 
Messrs. Chapman & Co., 

Fulton and Duffield Streets, New York 
Gentlemen: 

Having seen your advertisement in this morning's edition 
of the New York Times, I wish to apply for the position as 
clerk in your office. 



178 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

I am thirteen years of age and live with my parents at 
the above address. I was graduated from Public School 
130 last June. While I was a student there, I did my best 
work in mathematics, grammar, and spelling. I was always 
considered at least an average scholar. 

References concerning my honesty, intelligence, and 
willingness to work may be obtained at any time from Dr. 
George B. German, principal of PubHc School 130. 

Hoping I may be fortunate enough to enter your employ, 
I am, Yours truly, 

Grace S. Hughes 
206. 
The Sitting-Room in a Colonial House. 

It was a beautiful old room, about twice the size of a 
modern one, with five windows through which the sunlight 
shone during the day time. 

The floor was covered with a rich shade of old rose carpet. 
On one side of the room was a large fire-place, with a bright 
fire burning in it, which gave the room a cosey, warm feeling 
on that cold winter evening, while the snow fell softly outside. 

The room was never lighted with electric lights, but with 
old-fashioned candles, which shed a soft glow upon it, and 
lightened the carpet. On another side of the room stood 
a large harp, over which a beautiful portrait of a young lady 
hung on the wall. The rest of the room was partly filled 
with comfortable chairs, a table, a book case, and a desk. 

Alice Goodwin. 

221. 

My Summer Reading. 

Being very fond of reading, I spent most of my time this 
summer in so doing. I read many books, among them the 
"Elsie Series," the "Life of U. S. Grant," the "Golden 
Arrow," "A Nest of Girls," and "A World of Girls." The 
most interesting book, I think, is the "Life of U. S. Grant," 
or "Our Standard Bearer," as he is called. It is about a 
patriotic man, a noble man, a man who fought bravely for 
our country. General Grant. I think it was more interesting, 
because we can see his tomb any time we wish to, and some 
of us remember seeing him. 

Marjorie Armstrong. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 179 

228. 

2784 Broadway, 
New York, October 20, 1905. 
Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co., 

19th Street and Broadway. 
Gentlemen: — Please send by Monday, to above address, 
twenty yards of black crepe de chine, thirty-six inches wide, 
at two dollars per yard, and charge same to my account. 
Very truly yours, 

Jeannette Gonard. 
231. 
An Unpleasant Subject. 
A brindle bull dog came walking down the street with a 
very conceited air, paying' no attention to his surroundings, 
but when he reached the British Minister's gate his air of 
unconcern was immediately changed to one of deep interest, 
as a stately grey hound stepped out before him. 
"Who are you?" asked the grey hound. 
"I am President Roosevelt's dog and was his close com- 
panion during the Spanish American v/ar," returned the 
bull dog, "and pray, who are you that you venture to stop 
me?" 




"I am King Edward's dog and am a descendant of one 
of the oldest dog families in England. One of my ancestors 
came from Normandy with William the Conqueror." 

"My ancestry does not reach as far back as yours, I admit," 
returned the bull dog, "but there is a little piece of red cloth 
in our family which we prize very highly, that was taken by 
one of my ancestors from General Cornwallis's trousers 
when he surrendered at Yorktown." 

"This is not a very pleasant subject to refer to, so I will 
bid you good day." 

Katharine Baker. 



180 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

233. 

St. Paul's Church. 

The Church of St. Paul faces the North River, its rear 

being toward Broadway, between Fulton and Vesey streets. 

It is the third Episcopal Church, and the oldest building 

in New York. The corner-stone of St. Paul's was laid in 




17^64; the building itself was finished two years later. The 
churchyard adds greatly to its venerable appearance, having 
in it monuments to Thomas Addis Emmet, the Irish patriot; 
George Frederick Cooke, and others; while on the rear wall, 
which faces Broadway, is a memorial tablet to General 
Richard Montgomery. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 181 

243. 

The Angelus. 

A beautiful description of peasant life in France is represented 

in this picture painted by Millet, a celebrated French artist. 

Two peasants have been working in the fields, but have 

stopped in the midst of what they were doing to hear the soft 

tolling of the Angelus from the church in the distance. They 

well know that it means time for prayer, and thus they stand 

with bowed heads and clasped hands, reverently praying. 




It is at the close of the day, and the sun is fast setting into 
the distant west. Beside these peasants, there are bags of 
potatoes, which show how hard they have labored to accom- 
plish their daily task. 

The picture suggests that even after their hard day's work, 
they find their best comfort in spending the hour of dusk in 
prayer. It is a noble way of doing, and if others in this 
world followed the example, their burden would grow lighter, 
sunshine would follow in their paths, and life become more 



beautiful. 



Evelyn E. Murch. 



182 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

248. 

Lost. 

(Given.) 

A little girl who lived in England went to five o'clock service 

and fell sound asleep in a large, highbacked pew. The service 

ended, the congregation departed, and the church was locked. 

When tea time came, she was missed by her mother, and as her 

family did not know of her visit to church, they became greatly 

alarmed. Night cast her shadowy pall over the earth and the 

return of the child was despaired of. 

(Original.) 

About six o'clock the little one awoke and was filled with 
alarm. Shadowy forms chased each other over the walls 
and the scurrying of the rats could be heard in the rafters 
overhead. The child slipped to the floor, and raising her 
little hands in supplication, breathed this prayer: "0 God! 
protect me!" She crept to the door and tried to open it, 
but the heavy hinges refused to budge. It was now pitch 
dark in God's sanctuary. She reached the altar, now 
divested of all its candles and coverings, and lay down on 
the altar steps. Suddenly a rat scurried past her and she 
screamed aloud in terror. She felt hungry, and remembering 
the nice supper for her at home, began to weep piteously. 
Worn out with crying, she fell asleep for the second time. 
She was awakened about eleven o'clock by a peculiar grating 
noise, and she heard two gruflF voices say: 

"They had a service here to-night and I tried, but could 
not stay in. Guess the sexton suspected me!" 

"Where do they keep the money?" inquired the other. 

"Under the altar steps." 

"The quicker we get this job over, the better. I feel 
mean to rob a church." The two men were noiselessly 
approaching the altar. The child rose to her feet and said 
in a trembling voice, "What do you want?" As she stood 
there in her little white dress, she looked like an angel; 
indeed the men thought she was, for an instant. 



ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 183 

"Nothing," answered the older man. "Who are you, 
little girl? What are you doing here at eleven o'clock at 
night?" 

"I'm Mildred Young," she answered, "and I was locked 
in. I fell asleep during services and when I woke up they 
had all gone home." 

"See here, kid," broke in the other man, "we came to 
get some money here and if you scream we'll have to tie 
your mouth." 

"Oh! you're going to rob God!" she cried, recoiling in 
horror. "Oh! you bad, wicked men!" The younger man 
approached her with a cloth in his hand to gag her, but the 
other interposed. "See here, Jim," he exclaimed, "If you 
do this job, you do it alone. This little one has led me back 
to the days when I went to church and I'm ashamed of 
myself. Come, girlie, I won't hurt you, and I won't touch 
any of God's money," he said, holding out his arms. 

"Then you're good," she answered, "and I'll come to you." 
She crept into his arms, and as her golden curls rested against 
his soiled coat, he murmured softly to himself, "And a little 
child shall lead them." The young man looked at them a 
minute and then softly went out. 

The next morning he who had held her all night carried 
her safely home and told to her mother the story I have told 
to you — ^the story of a sinner led back to the spotless path 
and to Him by a baby's hand 

Helen Hall. 
252. 

Treaty Between Russia and Japan. 

"Peace at last!" It must mean a great deal to every 

Russian and Japanese soldier that has fought on the battle 

field, each for the honor of his country. There will be no 

more fighting for them, but peace and rest with their dear 

ones. "The Treaty of Portsmouth" has ended the great 

struggle in the East, and the representatives of both the 

Czar and the Mikado have joyously cabled the glad news 

to their kings. 

Alice Thompson. 



XIII. 

Course in Punctuation for Elementary 
Schools. 

It is intended to give in this chapter a set of rules 
for punctuation and capitals so simplified that they 
may be used in the elementary schools. 

The writer is well aware of the objection that is 
urged against rules of any kind; but he is also a 
teacher of many years' experience; and experience 
proves that theories must always make a compromise 
with common sense. How punctuation may be 
taught by the heuristic method is well shown in 
Shaw's Composition hy Practice* a book which I 
commend to all readers. But you will notice that 
the rule invariably follows the illustrations of a cer- 
tain use of a point. The concrete use is presented; 
the pupil observes several instances; from this he 
generalizes, and gets his abstract, which we call the 

*Holt & Co., New York. 

184 • 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 185 

rule. It is folly to suppose that you can get along 
without the abstract, for that is the goal of all in- 
struction. The error of presenting the abstract 
without the antecedent concrete, is no greater than 
the presentation of the concrete without the definite 
presentation of the abstract. No fault is more com- 
mon than the introduction of concretes without a 
conscious embodiment in definition, rule, or principle, 
of the abstract for which alone the concrete should 
have been employed. An enormous amount of 
valuable time is wasted by aimless "observation 
lessons" or "experiments" in nature study. 

A specimen can have only one legitimate use, and 
that is to illustrate something that is true of the 
whole class of objects to which the specimen belongs. 
That is, the story it tells is to be general, not indi- 
vidual; abstract, not concrete. 

The rules which follow are abstract. It is assumed 
that teachers will supply an abundance of concrete 
material, also of drill, to impress and fix these rules. 
But the rules themselves must be learned and fol- 
lowed, or the material, no matter how voluminous? 
and the drill, no matter how thorough, are but a 
waste of time and energy. 

Rules of Punctuation. 

The Comma (,) is used— 

1. To set off elements* in the same construction 

forming a series. 

Ex. Earth, air, and water teem with life. 

* "Elements" as here used, means "words, phrases, or 
clauses." It is preferred because it makes the rules short. 



186 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

2. To set off transposed elements. 

Ex. When the wicked entice thee, consent thou 
not. 

3. To set off interposed elements. 

Ex. This, however, was not my purpose. 

4. To set off short quotations informally introduced, 
Ex. Who said, "Let us have peace"? 

5. To set off independent elements. 
Ex. Fly, brother, fly. 

John, come here. 
(In grades 4A to 5B the rule is this : — 
To set off words of address.) 

6. To mark the omission of a word. 
Ex. John was good; William, bad. 

New York, Jan. 4, 1898. 

7. Sometimes between the members of a compound 
sentence that are not subdivided by commas. 

Ex. We love Bums, and we pity him. 

8. Sometimes at the end of a long subject. 

Ex. The Convention which assembled at Paris in 
1792, decreed that royalty was abolished. 

9. To set off appositive elements. 
(5B-6A. To set off explanatory elements.) 

(When the element is only a word or two no comma 
is needed.) 
Ex. James Brown, Ph.D., is here. 

George, the boy who played truant, is here. 

Paul the Apostle was a good man. 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 187 

The Semicolon (;) is used— ^ 

10. Before as, viz.,t namely, etc., when they intro- 
duce examples; as, — 

Ex. A noun is a name; as, JoM. 

11. Between members of a compound sentence that 
are subdivided by commas. 

Ex. Where thou goest, I will go; and where thou 
lodgest, I will lodge. , ; , . 

The Colon (:) is used— 

12. Before an enumeration or quotation introduced 
by as follows, the following, etc. 

Ex. The following persons are elected to office: 
President, James Finn; Secretary, Mary Shinn. 

13. Between the members of a compound sentence 
that are subdivided by semicolons. 

Ex. ; : ; . 

The Period (.) is used— 

14. After declarative and imperative sentences [after 
statements and commands for first four years.] 

Ex. God is good. 

John, come here. 

15. After abbreviations. 

Ex. Prof. John Brown, A.M. 

16. After Headings, and Arabic figures used to 
number paragraphs. 

The Interrogation Point (?) is used— 

17. After questions. 

fViz. — videlicet. 



188 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

The Exclamation Point (!) is used — 

18. After elements that denote strong feeling. 
Ex. To your tents, Israel ! 

Alas! how have I fallen! 

Quotation Marks {" ") are used — 

19. To enclose words used by another. 

Ex. ^'This," said he, "is America." (divided). 
Who said, "The sun do move?" 

20. A quotation within a quotation of double marks is 
indicated by single marks. 

21. A quotation within a quotation of single marks 
is indicated by double marks. 

Ex. Trench says, "What a lesson is contained in 
the word 'diligence',!" 

The Professor began as follows^ "Trench 
says, 'What a lesson is contained in the word "dili- 
gence"]' " 

The Dash (— ) is used — 

22. Sometimes instead of parenthesis marks. 

Ex. I repeat — and this is the principal part of 
my story — that wages are too low. 

23. To denote a sudden change of thought. 

Ex. I believe — but what is the use of talking? 

24. At the end of a line to show that the sense io irh 
complete. 

Ex. See after -' used " in the above rules. 

25. After a side heading. 
Example. — 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 189 

Marks of Parenthesis () are used — 

26. To set off expressions that form no necessary 
part of the sentence. 

Ex. It is evident (so they say) that the army is 
too small. 
Brackets [ ] are used — 

27. To enclose words that are not the author's, in 
ordzr to explain the meaning or supply an omission. 

Ex. "The President [Mr. Little] called the mem- 
ber to order." 

"The wages of sin is [arej death." 
The Apostrophe (') is used — 

28. To indicate the possessive case. 

29. To form plurals of letters, signs, etc. 

30. To indicate the omission of letters or figures. 
Ex. The Boys of 76 ; 'T is true. 

The Hyphen (-) is used — 
31. At the end of a line when part of a word is taken to 
the next line. 

32. To join the parts of some compound words. 
Ex. Mother-in-law. 

The Caret (^) is used — 

33. To show where something is to he inserted. 

The Star (*), Dagger (t), Double Dagger (|); 
etc., are used — 

34. As marks of reference. 

35. In Manuscript — 

(1) One line under a word means italics. 

(2) Two lines mean small capitals. 

(3) Three lines mean CAPITALS. 
Caution. — Always underline your headings. 



190 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

RLO^ES FOR CAPITALS. 

The following words should begin with capital 
letters: 

36. The first word of every sentence. 

37. The first word of a line of poetry. 

38. Particular names, and words derived from 
them. (Above 4B use "proper nouns," etc.) 

39. The words North, South, East, West, when 
used to denote parts of the country. 

40. Names of months and days (but not seasons). 

41. The first word of a direct quotation or question. 

42. Names representing the Deity. 

43. Names of the Bible and books of the Bible. 

44. Titles applied to a person and abbreviations 
of titles. 

45. Names of things when spoken of or to es jer- 
sons. (In higher grades use "names of things per- 
sonified.") 

46. Important words in titles and headings. (All 
words may be regarded as "important," except 
articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.) 

47. I and 0; "oh" should begin with a capital only 
when it begins a sentence. 

Punctuation, it would seem, needs far more atten- 
tion than it has hitherto received. We are taught 
that a solecism in grammar is a mark of vulgarity; 
and that while a good speller receives no special 
credit, a bad speller is regarded as an ignoramus; but 
our literary conscience does not seem to be offended 
by errors of punctuation. Children should be 
taught to punctuate with the same care and fidelity 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 191 

that is bestowed on spelling and capitalization. 
Always punctuate, no matter if you write for your 
eye only. Let the punctuation be an essential part 
of your written expression. 
Above all things: 

1. Watch the commas in your series. 

2. Never put a semicolon after the complimentary 
address in a letter. 

3. Pat a semicolon before as, viz.', etc. 

4. Always use a colon after a formal address. 

5. Don't forget the second set of your quotation 
marks. 

6. Always underline your headings. 

7. And put periods after Arabic figures used to 
number paragraphs. 

8. Finally, beware of making too many paragraphs. 

Assignment of Rules by Grades. 

Experience as principal has convinced the writer 
that the only way to get a given thing taught in a 
particular grade is to put it down in a plan. Just as 
ah architect is obliged to put every item for which he 
holds the contractor responsible into the plars ard 
spacifications, so a principal, in order to get "r€£i:lts,'* 
must carefully define the problem for each giEde. 
The course of study is properly somewhat \£gi:e, 
and deals in general statements. This gives the 
curriculum the elasticity which is needed to adept it 
to different localities. But if the principal allows 
each teacher to put his own interpretation upon the 
course of study, there are certain to be gaps, over- 



192 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

lappings, cross-purposings, and maladjustments all 
along the line, which hamper and distress the child,i 
and make accurate and thorough scholarship impos- 
sible. The plans or specifications of a grade should 
show not only the new work required, but should also 
indicate exactly what ground previously covered is 
to be reviewed. 

Having planned his work, the next duty of the 
principal is to work his plan. This, he can do by 
requiring each teacher to enter into a "Progress 
Book" (weekly or monthly) the work done up to a 
given date. For the convenience of those who care 
to follow these suggestions all the exercises in the 
co:Tiposition plan, and in the selections for dictation; 
as well as the rules for punctuation and capitals, are 
numbered consecutively for easy reference. It is 
possible, therefore, to enter into the "Progress Book" 
any given exercise or rule by merely referring to its 
number. This effects a saving of labor for which 
teachers will be duly grateful. 

lA-lB. 

No formal rules of punctuation are prescribed for 
the first year. A teacher who goes beyond copy 
work in these grades will discover what formal ele- 
ments it is desirable to teach informally. 

2A. 

New: 14, 17, 36. 

It may be desirable to simplify some of these rules 
for the lowest grades. 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 193 

2B. 

Review: 14, 17, 36. 

New: 18,47. 

In this grade it may be well to call an exclamation 
point a "wonder mark," as suggested in dictation 
exercise No. 16. 

3A. 

Review: 14, 17, 18, 36, 47. 

New: 15, 37, 40, 44. 

Rul6 15 may be limited to abbreviations of the 
days of the week, the months of the year, and titles. 
Dictation exercise 24 specifies as its object the use 
of the comma. This, however, must be a mere mat- 
ter of observation and copy, as a child in this grade 
could not understand the rule that governs the given 
case. 

3B. 

Review: 14, 15, 17, 18, 36, 37, 40; 44; 47. 

New: 28, 30. 

4A. 

Review: 14, 15, 17, 18, 28, 30, 36, 37, 40, 44; 47. 

New: 5, 6, 16, 19, 31, 38. 

Rule 6 should be applied especially to the writing 
of dates, and rule 5 should be limited to words of 
address. Rule 30 should be used to afford drill in 
writing common contractions. Limit No. 19 to the 
unbroken quotation. 

4B. 

Review: 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28, 30, 31, 36; 
37, 38, 40, 44, 47. 

New: 1,22,26. 



194 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

Rule 1 is of the utmost importance. Attention 
should be called in the lower grades to the necessity 
of a comma when words are repeated. It requires 
considerable grammatical knowledge to understand 
clearly what is meant by a "series." Note that the 
comma is required between the last two members of 
the series even when "and" is used. Probably no 
single rule of punctuation occasions a careful editor 
as much trouble as this. Almost without exception; 
writers omit the comma before the "and." We 
invite all our readers who doubt the correctness of 
our position, to examine the editorials of carefully 
edited newspapers and the books of standard writers. 
Take down your Macaulay, Bryant, Hawthorne, or 
almost any author of equal standing, and convince 
yourself that these use the comma in a series where 
ii'and" occurs. 

Extend Rule 19 to the broken quotation. 

5A. 

Review: 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17; 18; 19; 22, 26, 28; 
30, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40, 44, 47. 

New: 3, 4, 32, 39, 41, 42, 43. 

Elementary grammar is usually introduced here or 
earlier, and hence we may now teach Rule 3, which 
is based on grammatical relations. The grammar 
work calls for subject, predicate, object; the natural 
order of these may be pointed out, as well as their 
intimate relation. When something else is thrown 
in between any two, the commas are used to indicate 
this interposition. Much drill will be required on 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 195 

the divided quotation. Rule 4 has a natural relation 
to 19. 

5B. 

Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 26; 
28, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47. 

New: 9, 10, 12, 33, 35, 46. 

Grammar is now sufficiently advanced to teach 
No. 9, but it will be better to use the word "explana- 
tory" until the nature of "apposition" is better 
understood. Rule 10 is badly understood by adults. 
An examination of good writers, especially of stand- 
ard text-books, will convince the reader of the im- 
portance of the rule. Do not allow the pupil to 
pronounce viz. '--'viz.," but teach him to read it 
'-'namely" or '-'to wit." The formal introduction 
should now be recognized and punctuated according 
to Rule 12. 

6A. 

Review: 1; 3, 4; 5, 6, 9, 10; 12; 14; 15; 16, 17, 18; 
19, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 87; 38, 39, 40; 
41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47. 

New: 34. 

In connection with Rule 29 all the different ways 
of forming the possessive should be drilled on; 
chiefly in connection with work in grammar. The 
above remarks apply also to Rule 32. Compound 
words are treated under the formation of the plural. 
Much practice is needed before pupils are able to 
recognize what part of a compound is the "principal" 
word, and that this part only is changed to indicate 



196 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

the singular or plural. In connection with the read- 
ing lessons in literature, history, geography, marks 
of reference are verj^ important. Children should 
have their attention called to these marks wherever 
they occur, and Rule 34 is introduced for the purpose. 

6B. 

Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 
.19, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 
40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47. 

New: 7, 11, 20. 

By this time classification of sentences is probably 
called for; and hence Rule 7, which is based on a 
thorough knowledge of the compound sentence, may 
properly be taught here. For the same reason No. 
11 will now be understood. It is also time to know 
a little more about quotation marks, and hence Rule 
20 is added. 

7A. 

Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16; 
17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47. 

New: 13,29,45. 

Further work in grammar with long compound 
sentences will necessitate the introduction of No. 13. 
In No, 22, note that other marks required should be 
used regardless of the dash. 

Thus: "When he was in a rage, — and he was in 
a rage very often, — he swore like a porter." 



COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 197 

7B. 

Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 
35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. 

New: 2, 24, 25. 

8A. 

Review; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 
33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. 

New: 23. 

SB. 

New: 8, 21; 27. 

Review all the rest. 



APPENDIX 199 

APPENDIX A. 

A Simple Code of Marks. 



\ 


Capital (over the letter). 


• 


"Wrong word (under the word). 


— 


Spelling. 


A 


Insert. 


= 


Omit. 


o 


Punctuation. 


+ 


Write more. 


H 


Paragraph. 



APPENDIX B. 

Composition Covers. 

In order to judge the merit of an exercise in composition 
a supervisor must know the aim and method of the produc- 
tion. The cover shown in the illustration is intended to 
convey this necessary information. Without some such 
means of informing himself, a principal or supervisor can 
not do justice to either teacher or pupil. One standard of 
criticism applies to a reproduction, while quite another 
standard is necessary in original composition. In the one 
case the phraseology of all the children should be alike or 
nearly so; in the other case, the individuality of the pupil 
should be prominent, and an identity of phraseology in a 
number of exercises would utterly condemn the teacher's 
method. So, also, there is a wide difference between the 
abstract and the paraphrase. In the one case the pupil 
condenses the thought of the author and uses his own words. 
In the other case he follows all the detail of thought but uses 
new forms of expression. In both cases, the phraseology 
is his own; therefore, a class exercise of either kind, if properly 
conducted, should produce great variety of form. But the 
substance of the thought will be identical in all, thus differ- 
entiating both these kinds of composition from original essay 
writing. How then am I to know the merit of a performance 



200 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 

unless I am first informed as to the aim tKe teacher had in 
mind? Equally necessary is it to know how much time and 
effort have been devoted to the exercise; whether it has had 
correction, and if so, by whom, to what extent, and in what 
way. The cover shown herewith exhibits all these data. 
The "form" explains what the composition is meant to be. 
The date or dates show whether it is the first or second copy. 
The method of presentation tells how the pupil obtained his 
material, while the method of correction helps us to decide 
whether errors are to be criticised severely or leniently. 

The manner of using tke cover is as follows : The exercises 
of the class are packed and held together by a paper fastener. 
The cover is the top sheet. The teacher draws a line in red 
ink about half an inch in length after the words that apply 
in the given case. If he is putting up the corrected copy of 
a letter, he may check these headings: "Narrative," "Orig- 
inal," "Model," "Individual." He will write two dates, 
one for the original composition, the other for the corrected 
copy. 

Composition Cover. 

CLASS 

Public School 19 Manhattan Borough, New York. 

Joseph S. Taylor, Principal. 



Composition. 



Subject. 



Form 



1. Copy. 

2. Dictation. 

3. Reproduction. 

4. Original. 

5. Abstract. ( First Copy, 



6. Elaboration. Date . 

7. Paraphrase. ( Second Copy. 

8. Description. 

9. Narrative. 

10. Exposition. 

11. Argument. 



APPENDIX 



201 



Composition Cover. — Continued 

il 

f Of Presenting 



Method 



Subject Matter. 



Of Correction. 



Model. 

2. Oral (developed on Board). 

3. Reading (by Teacher). 
-j 4. Reading (by Pupil) 

5. Observation. 

6. Imagination. 
L7. Outline. 

1. Class (by Pupils). 

2. Class (by Teacher-Board). 

3. Individual (by Teacher). 



Signed. 



Class Teacher. 



Abstract. 

Aim of Composition . . . . 

— ^training of mind . . . 

— drill in mechanics of 

expression 

Anecdotes 

Anonymous Composi- 
tions 

Appendix A 

Appendix B 

Argumentation 

Barnes, Earl, on think- 
ing of children 

Brown, H. W., on think- 
ing of children 

Capitals, rules for 

Choosing a subject 

—ideas 

— self-chosen themes 
best 

— correlation 

Class organization 



Index 

64 Code of marks 199 

16 Completing stories ... 45, 182 

16 Composition as a mode 

of expression .... 1 

17 — ^reflex arc the type. 1 
45 — lesson in grammar. 2 

— picking up blocks . . 3 

40 — lesson in drawing. . 3 
199 — story of King Ches- 

199 ter 5 

68 Conversation 92 

Cooperation, principle of 28 

— devices of 28, 41 

14 Copy 54,165 

Correction of Composi- 

14 tions 81 

— every exercise some 

190 correction 81 

71 — ^three methods 81 

71 — use of helps 84 

— do not be too critical 85 

72 — exclude technicali- 

73 ties while writing 85 
48 — a code of marks . . 86, 199 

203 



204 



INDEX 



Correlation in composi- 
tion 18,33, 70 

Covers for compositions 200 
Criticism, develop power 
of 39 

Definition of some terms 89 
Description 

46, 67, 180, 181 

Development lessons 34 

Devices, in composition 31 

— ^first year, oral 32 

— second and third 

years, oral 37 

— ^third year, written. 38 
— t hird to eighth 

years, written ... 39 
— sixth, seventh, and 

eighth years, oral 45 
— sixth, seventh, and 
eighth years, 

written 45 

— seventh and eighth 

years, written. . . 47 
— positive movements 

of body 32 

—require clear state- 
ments 33 

— ^picture stories 33 

— correlate with read- 
ing 33 

— ^play that teacher is 

audience 36 

— questions 36 

— overcome diffidence 36 

—number work 36 

— game of grab-bag , . 37 



— develop ideas 37 

— supply missing parts 38 
— ^let children con- 
struct model .... 38 
— develop power of 

criticism 39 

— letter-writing 39 

anonymous compo- 
sitions 40 

— picture stories 41 

— partnership 41 

— practice variety 41 

— n e w s items con- 
densed 42 

— ^topic sentence 43 

— general exercises. . . 44 

— selected quotations 45 

— anecdotes 45 

— completing stories. . 45 
— describing known 

persons 46 

— five-minute compo- 
sitions 46 

— ^the model imitated 47 

— ^lessons in grammar 47 

— class organization. . 48 

Dictation 55, 129, 164 

Diffidence, how to over- 
come 36 

Duggan, Elizabeth A., 

composition plans .... 88 
Dwyer, Dr. John, com- 
position plans 88 

Effectiveness, how se- 
cured , , 75 



INDEX 



205 



— attention to formal 

detail 75 

— figures of speech ... 76 

—perspective 78 

Expression, composition 

as a form of 2 

— in the modern school 4 
— composition more 

than 11 

Exposition 68 

Elaboration 66 

Figures of speech 76 

Five - minute composi- 
tions 46 

Formal detail 75 

Forms of composition . . 54 

— copy 55 

— dictation 55 

— reproduction 56 

— original, by question 57 
— original, from imag- 
ination 57 

— original, from model 60 

— original, from topics 63 

— abstract 64 

— elaboration 66 

— ^types of composition 67 

— narration 67 

— description 67 

— exposition 68 

— ^argumentation... 68 

—units of composition 69 

— ^sentence 69 

— paragraph 69 

— essay 70 



Game of grab-bag 37 

General exercises 44 

Grammar, correlated 

with composition. . .2, 47 

Hale, E. E., on compo- 
sition 79 

Harris, Wm. T., defini- 
tion of elementary 
school 13 

Herbart, quoted 22 

How to be effective. ... 75 
— attention to formal 

detail 75 

— ^figures of speech ... 76 
— perspective 78 

Ideas, importance of.37, 39,71 
Illustrative compositions 

165-183 
Imaginative Composi- 
tions 59, 179 

Imitation, in learning to 

speak 10 

Interest, principle of . . . 26 
Isolation in composition 

21, 24 

Jones, Olive M., compo- 
sition plan 88 

King Chester, story of. . 5 

Letter- writing 39 

Maxwell, Wm. H., on the 
model 61 



206 



INDEX 



Method in composition. 18 

Missing parts 38 

Model, use of 38, 47, 61 

Modes of expression 2 

Narration 67 

News items 42 

Number work in compo- 
sition 36 

Oral composition, im- 
portance of 20, 27, 90 

—devices for. . .21, 31, 53 

Original composition, by 

question 57 

Original Composition, 

from imagination .... 57 

Original Composition, 

from model 60 

Original Composition, 

from topics 63 

Partnership 41 

Perspective 78 

Picture stories. . .33, 41, 181 
Plan of composition. .88-128 
Play in composition. .36, 37 
Positive movements of 
body help clear think- 
ing 32 

Principles of composition 18 

— correlation 18 

— isolation 21 

— interest 26 

— cooperation 28 

Psychology of composi- 
tion 9, 12 



— evolution of expres- 
sion 9 

— oral and written ex- 
pression 9 

— composition more 
than mere expres- 
sion 11 

— composition as a 

mental process. . . 12 

— ^thinking of children 14 
Punctuation, course 

in 184-197 

Questions in composi- 
tion 36 

Quotations, selected .... 45 

Rebecca of Sunnybrook 
Farm... 13 

Reproduction ; . . . 56 

Richman, Julia, on dic- 
tation 120 

Rules for punctuation . . 

184-197 

Schoonmaker, Emma C, 
composition plan .... 88 

Self-chosen themes 72 

Specific vs. general 

terms 42 

Spellbinders, the 49 

Statement, clear, in reci- 
tations 33 

Stitt, Dr. E. W., compo- 
sition plan 88 

Stories in composition 
work 19 



INDEX 207 

Subjects, too abstract . . 22 Types of composition ... 67 

— choosing 71 — Narration 67 

Summary of new steps in —Description 67 

course 126 -Exposition.. 68 

— Argumentation . 68 

Themes, self-chosen 72 Units of composition .. . 69 

Thinking of children . . 14, 25 

Topic sentences 43 Variety, practice of, .41, 46 



NOV 2S 1906 



